tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3495828330865291152024-02-06T19:42:27.084-08:00Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik IndonesiaHimpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.comBlogger9125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-26143886756699569222008-09-16T17:43:00.000-07:002008-09-16T17:50:56.400-07:00Curriculum Theory and Practice<h1 style="text-align: center;">Curriculum Theory and Practice</h1><div style="text-align: center;">By:<br /></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">mark k. smith</h1><div style="text-align: center;">(a Visiting Professor in Community Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow.)<br /></div><br /><h2><span lang="EN-US">The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized? We explore curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education.</span></h2> <h6><span lang="EN-US">contents: <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#introduction"> introduction</a> · <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#transmission">curriculum as transmission</a> · <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#product"> curriculum as product </a>· <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#process">curriculum as process </a>· <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#praxis">curriculum as praxis </a>· <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#context">curriculum and context</a> · <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#informal"> curriculum and informal education </a>· </span><a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#furtherreading">further reading </a>· <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#links">links</a> · <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm#cite"> how to cite this article</a></h6> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"><img src="http://www.infed.org/images/places/new-lan.jpg" alt="New Lanark schoolroom" width="380" align="right" border="0" height="265" hspace="10" /><a name="introduction"></a>The idea of curriculum is hardly new - but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years - and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; <i>currere</i> was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in his standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum as, 'All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999).</span> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> This gives us some basis to move on - and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features:</span></p> <p style=""><b> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> L</span></b><span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"><b>earning is planned and guided</b>. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it.</span></p> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"><b>The definition refers to schooling.</b> We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson.</span></p> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:</span></p> <blockquote> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;">1. </span> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be <b>transmitted</b>.</span> </p><p style=""> <span style="color: black;">2. </span> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students - <b>product</b>.</span> </p><p style=""> <span style="color: black;">3. </span> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as <b>process</b>.</span> </p><p style="margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;"> <span style="color: black;">4. </span> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US">Curriculum as <b> praxis</b>.</span> </p></blockquote> <p>It is helpful to consider these ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice in the light of <a href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-arist.htm"> Aristotle's</a> influential categorization of <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm">knowledge </a>into three disciplines: <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm#theoretical">the theoretical</a>, <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm#productive">the productive </a>and <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm#practical"> the practical</a>.</p> <p class="style12" align="center"><img src="http://www.infed.org/images/illustrations/curriculum.gif" width="570" border="0" height="287" /></p> <p>Here we can see some clear links - the body of knowledge to be transmitted in the first is that classically valued as 'the canon'; the process and praxis models come close to practical deliberation; and the technical concerns of the outcome or product model mirror elements of Aristotle's characterization of the productive. More this will be revealed as we examine the theory underpinning individual models.<span lang="EN-US"><a name="transmission"></a></span></p> <h4 style="margin-right: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm;">Curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted</h4> <p style=""> Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek (although there was some confusion in its usage due to early misprints). Basically it means a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations - teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge Board French GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined. </p> <p style=""> A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases as Curzon (1985) points out, those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of an 'order of contents', or a pattern prescribed by a 'logical' approach to the subject, or - consciously or unconsciously - a the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or 'delivered' to students by the most effective methods that can be devised (Blenkin et al 1992: 23).</p> <p>Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. 'It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools', Kelly (1985: 7) claims, 'have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner'.</p> <h4> <span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as product</span> </h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. It is a way of thinking about education that has grown in influence in the United Kingdom since the late 1970s with the rise of vocationalism and the concern with competencies. Thus, in the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">It is the work of two American writers Franklin Bobbitt (1918; 1928) and Ralph W. Tyler (1949) that dominate theory and practice within this tradition. In <i>The Curriculum </i> Bobbitt writes as follows:</span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span lang="EN-US">The central theory [of curriculum] is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularized. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (1918: 42)</span></p></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">This way of thinking about curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> was heavily influenced by the development of management thinking and practice. The rise of 'scientific management' is often associated with the name of its main advocate F. W. Taylor. Basically what he proposed was greater division of labour with jobs being simplified; an extension of managerial control over all elements of the workplace; and cost accounting based on systematic time-and-motion study. All three elements were involved in this conception of curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">. For example, one of the attractions of this approach to curriculum theory was that it involved detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. A familiar, and more restricted, example of this approach can be found in many training programmes, where particular tasks or jobs have been analyzed - broken down into their component elements - and lists of competencies drawn up. In other words, the curriculum was not to be the result of 'armchair speculation' but the product of systematic study. Bobbitt's work and theory met with mixed responses. One telling criticism that was made, and can continue to be made, of such approaches is that there is no social vision or programme to guide the process of curriculum construction. As it stands it is a technical exercise. However, it wasn't criticisms such as this which initially limited the impact of such curriculum theory in the late 1920s and 1930s. Rather, the growing influence of 'progressive', child-centred approaches shifted the ground to more romantic notions of education. Bobbitt's long lists of objectives and his emphasis on order and structure hardly sat comfortably with such forms.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">The Progressive movement lost much of its momentum in the late 1940s in the United States and from that period the work of Ralph W. Tyler, in particular, has made a lasting impression on curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">. He shared Bobbitt's emphasis on rationality and relative simplicity. His theory was based on four fundamental questions:</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler 1949: 1)</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Like Bobbitt he also placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives. </span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span lang="EN-US">Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students' pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. (Tyler 1949: 44)</span></p></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">We can see how these concerns translate into a nicely-ordered procedure: one that is very similar to the technical or productive thinking set out below.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 1</b>: Diagnosis of need</span> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 2</b>: Formulation of objectives</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 3</b>: Selection of content</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 4</b>: Organization of content</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 5</b>: Selection of learning experiences</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 6</b>: Organization of learning experiences</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US"><b>Step 7</b>: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. (Taba 1962)</span></p></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US">is that it is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives - providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">There are a number of issues with this approach to curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">. The first is that the plan or programme assumes great importance. For example, we might look at a more recent definition of curriculum as: ‘A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy 1987: 11). The problem here is that such programmes inevitably exist prior to and outside the learning experiences. This takes much away from learners. They can end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of both the programme and the individual learners is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour and person of the learner (the meeting of behavioural objectives). If the plan is tightly adhered to, there can only be limited opportunity for educators to make use of the interactions that occur. It also can deskill educators in another way. For example, a number of curriculum programmes, particularly in the USA, have attempted to make the student experience 'teacher proof'. The logic of this approach is for the curriculum to be designed outside of the classroom or school, as is the case with the National Curriculum in the UK. Educators then apply programmes and are judged by the products of their actions. It turns educators into technicians. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Second, there are questions around the nature of objectives. This model is hot on measurability. It implies that behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here - there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. We only have to reflect on questions of success in our work. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. For example, most informal educators who have been around a few years will have had the experience of an ex-participant telling them in great detail about how some forgotten event (forgotten to the worker that is) brought about some fundamental change. Yet there is something more. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units. The result, as many of you will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus in this approach to curriculum theory and practice on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Third, there is a real problem when we come to examine what educators actually do in the classroom, for example. Much of the research concerning teacher thinking and classroom interaction, and curriculum innovation has pointed to the lack of impact on actual pedagogic practice of objectives (see Stenhouse 1974; and Cornbleth 1990, for example). One way of viewing this is that teachers simply get it wrong - they ought to work with objectives. I think we need to take this problem very seriously and not dismiss it in this way. The difficulties that educators experience with objectives in the classroom may point to something inherently wrong with the approach - that it is not grounded in the study of educational exchanges. It is a model of curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US">largely imported from technological and industrial settings. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Fourth, there is the problem of unanticipated results. The focus on pre-specified goals may lead both educators and learners to overlook learning that is occurring as a result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an objective. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">The apparent simplicity and rationality of this approach to curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">, and the way in which it mimics industrial management have been powerful factors in its success. A further appeal has been the ability of academics to use the model to attack teachers:</span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoBodyTextIndent"><span lang="EN-US">I believe there is a tendency, recurrent enough to suggest that it may be endemic in the approach, for academics in education to use the objectives model as a stick with which to beat teachers. 'What are your objectives?' is more often asked in a tone of challenge than one of interested and helpful inquiry. The demand for objectives is a demand for justification rather than a description of ends... It is not about curriculum design, but rather an expression of irritation in the problems of accountability in education. (Stenhouse 1974: 77)</span></p></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">So what are the other alternatives?<a name="process"></a></span></p> <h4><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as process</span></h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">We have seen that the curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioural objectives. The curriculum, essentially, is a set of documents for implementation. Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via process. In this sense curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. What we have in this model is a number of elements in constant interaction. It is an active process and links with the <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm#practical"> practical form of reasoning </a> set out by Aristotle. </span></p> <div align="center"> <table style="width: 80%;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <h5 class="exhibit">Curriculum as process</h5> <p><span lang="EN-US">Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with </span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">an ability to think critically, -in-action</span> <p><span lang="EN-US">an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter.</span></p></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">Guided by these, they encourage</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">conversations between, and with, people in the situation</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">out of which may come</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">thinking and action.</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">They</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p><span lang="EN-US">Perhaps the two major things that set this apart from the model for <a href="http://www.infed.org/i-intro.htm"> informal education</a> are first, the context in which the process occurs ('particular schooling situations'); and second, the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any other formal educational setting with a more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen. Here I have described that as entering the situation with 'a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter'. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">This form of words echoes those of Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) who produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model of curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">. He defined curriculum tentatively: 'A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice'. He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">It can be criticized on nutritional or gastronomic grounds - does it nourish the students and does it taste good? - and it can be criticized on the grounds of practicality - we can't get hold of six dozen larks' tongues and the grocer can't find any ground unicorn horn! A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others. Finally, within limits, a recipe can varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. (Stenhouse 1975: 4-5)</span></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">Stenhouse shifted the ground a little bit here. He was not saying that curriculum is the process, but rather the means by which the experience of attempting to put an educational proposal into practice is made available. The reason why he did this, I suspect, is that otherwise there is a danger of widening the meaning of the term so much that it embraces almost everything and hence means very little. For example, in a discussion of the so-called 'youth work curriculum' (Newman & Ingram 1989), the following definition was taken as a starting point: 'those processes which enhance or, if they go wrong, inhibit a person's learning'. This was then developed and a curriculum became: '</span>an <span lang="EN-US"> organic process by which learning is offered, accepted and internalized' (Newman & Ingram 1989: 1). The problem with this sort of definition, as Robin Barrow (1984) points out, is that what this does is to widen the meaning of the term to such an extent that it just about becomes interchangeable with 'education' itself. More specifically, if curriculum is process then the word curriculum is redundant because process would do very nicely! The simple equation of curriculum with process is a very slap-happy basis on which to proceed. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">We also need to reflect on why curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> came into use by educators (as against policy-makers). It was essentially as a way of helping them to think about their work before, during and after interventions; as a means of enabling educators to make judgments about the direction their work was taking. This is what Stenhouse was picking up on.</span></p> <table style="width: 80%;" align="center" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <p class="exhibit"><span lang="EN-US">Stenhouse on curriculum</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">As a minimum, a curriculum should provide a basis for planning a course, studying it empirically and considering the grounds of its justification. It should offer:</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">A. <b>In planning</b>:</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">1. Principle for the selection of content - what is to be learned and taught</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">2. Principles for the development of a teaching strategy - how it is to be learned and taught.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">3. Principles for the making of decisions about sequence.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">4. Principles on which to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of individual students and differentiate the general principles 1, 2 and 3 above, to meet individual cases.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">B. <b>In empirical study</b>:</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">1. Principles on which to study and evaluate the progress of students.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">2. Principles on which to study and evaluate the progress of teachers.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">3. Guidance as to the feasibility of implementing the curriculum in varying school contexts, pupil contexts, environments and peer-group situations.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">4. Information about the variability of effects in differing contexts and on different pupils and an understanding of the causes of the variation.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">C. <b>In relation to justification</b>:</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">A formulation of the intention or aim of the curriculum which is accessible to critical scrutiny.</span></p> <p align="right">Stenhouse 1975: 5</p></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><span lang="EN-US">There are a number of contrasts in this model of curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> as compared with the product model. First, where the product model appeals to the workshop for a model, this process model looks to the world of experimentation.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">The idea is that of an educational science in which each classroom is a laboratory, each teacher a member of the scientific community... The crucial point is that the proposal is not to be regarded as an unqualified recommendation but rather as a provisional specification claiming no more than to be worth putting to the test of practice, Such proposals claim to be intelligent rather than correct. (Stenhouse 1975: 142)</span></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">Thus, in this sense, a curriculum is a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of ground to be covered. 'It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance' (Stenhouse 1975: 142). </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Second, and associated with the above, given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal, even at school level, needs to be tested, and verified by each teacher in his/her classroom (<i>ibid</i>: 143). It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered almost anywhere.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Third, outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in this model of curriculum </span> theory and practice <span lang="EN-US">is that content and means develop as teachers and students work together. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Fourth, the learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. The product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. For example, how can this information be got over? A process approach to curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">, it is argued by writers like Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher. This is because this way of thinking emphasizes interpretation and meaning-making. As we have seen each classroom and each exchange is different and has to be made sense of. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">However, when we come to think about this way of approaching curriculum in practice, a number of possible problems do arise. The first is a problem for those who want some greater degree of uniformity in what is taught. This approach to the theory of curriculum, because it places meaning-making and thinking at its core and treats learners as subjects rather than objects, can lead to very different means being employed in classrooms and a high degree of variety in content. As Stenhouse comments, the process model is essentially a critical model, not a marking model.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">It can never be directed towards an examination as an objective without loss of quality, since the standards of the examination then override the standards immanent in the subject. This does not mean that students taught on the process model cannot be examined, but it does mean that the examinations must be taken in their stride as they pursue other aspirations. And if the examination is a by-product there is an implication that the quality the student shows in it must be an under-estimate of his real quality. It is hence rather difficult to get the weak student through an examination using a process model. Crammers cannot use it, since it depends upon a commitment to educational aims. (Stenhouse 1975: 95)</span></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">To some extent variation is limited by factors such as public examinations. The exchange between students and teachers does not float free of the context in which it arises. At the end of the day many students and their families place a high premium on exam or subject success and this inevitably enters into the classroom. This highlights a second problem with the model we have just outlined - that it may not pay enough attention to the context in which learning takes place (more of this later).</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Third, there is the 'problem' of teachers. The major weakness and, indeed, strength of the process model is that it rests upon the quality of teachers. If they are not up to much then there is no safety net in the form of prescribed curriculum materials. The approach is dependent upon the cultivation of wisdom and meaning-making in the classroom. If the teacher is not up to this, then there will be severe limitations on what can happen educationally. There have been some attempts to overcome this problem by developing materials and curriculum packages which focus more closely on the 'process of discovery' or 'problem-solving', for example in science. But there is a danger in this approach. Processes become reduced to sets of skills - for example, how to light a bunsen burner. When students are able to demonstrate certain skills, they are deemed to have completed the process. As Grundy comments, the actions have become the ends; the processes have become the product. Whether or not students are able to apply the skills to make sense of the world around them is somehow overlooked (Grundy 1987: 77). </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Fourth, we need to look back at our process model of curriculum theory and practice and what we have subsequently discussed, and return to Aristotle and to Freire. The model we have looked at here does not fully reflect the process explored earlier. In particular, it does not make explicit the commitments associated with phronesis. And it is to that we will now turn.<a name="praxis"></a></span></p> <h4><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as praxis</span></h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as <a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-praxis.htm"> praxis </a>is, in many respects, a development of the process model. While the process model is driven by general principles and places an emphasis on judgment and meaning making, it does not make explicit statements about the interests it serves. It may, for example, be used in such a way that does not make continual reference to collective human well-being and to the emancipation of the human spirit. The praxis model of curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US">brings these to the centre of the process and makes an explicit commitment to emancipation. Thus action is not simply informed, it is also committed. It is praxis.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">Critical pedagogy goes beyond situating the learning experience within the experience of the learner: it is a process which takes the experiences of both the learner and the teacher and, through dialogue and negotiation, recognizes them both as problematic... [It] allows, indeed encourages, students and teachers together to confront the real problems of their existence and relationships... When students confront the real problems of their existence they will soon also be faced with their own oppression. (Grundy 1987: 105)</span></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">We can amend our 'curriculum as process' model to take account of these concerns.</span></p> <div align="center"> <table style="width: 80%;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <p class="exhibit"><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as praxis</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with </span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">a personal, but shared idea of the good and a commitment to human emancipation,</span> <p><span lang="EN-US">an ability to think critically, -in-action</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter.</span></p></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">Guided by these, they encourage</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">conversations between, and with, people in the situation</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">out of which may come</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">informed and committed action.</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">They</span></p> <blockquote> <blockquote> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.</span></blockquote></blockquote> </blockquote> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <p><span lang="EN-US">In this approach the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. 'That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process' (Grundy 1987: 115). At its centre is <i><a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-praxis.htm">praxis</a></i>: informed, committed action.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">How might we recognize this? First, I think we should be looking for practice which does not focus exclusively on individuals, but pays careful attention to collective understandings and practices and to structural questions. For example, in sessions which seek to explore the experiences of different cultural and racial groups in society, we could be looking to see whether the direction of the work took people beyond a focus on individual attitudes. Are participants confronting the material conditions through which those attitudes are constituted, for example?</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Second, we could be looking for a commitment expressed in action to the exploration of educators' values and their practice. Are they, for example, able to say in a coherent way what they think makes for human well-being and link this with their practice? We could also be looking for certain values - especially an emphasis on human emancipation.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Third, we could expect practitioners committed to praxis to be exploring their practice with their peers. They would be able to say how their actions with respect to particular interventions reflected their ideas about what makes for the good, and to say what theories were involved.<a name="context"></a></span></p> <h4><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum in context</span></h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">To round off this discussion of curriculum we do need to pay further attention to the social context in which it is created. One criticism that has been made of the praxis model (especially as it is set out by Grundy) is that it does not place a strong enough emphasis upon context. This is a criticism that can also be laid at the door of the other approaches. In this respect the work of Catherine Cornbleth (1990) is of some use. She sees curriculum as a particular type of process. Curriculum for her is what actually happens in classrooms, that is, 'an ongoing social process comprised of the interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu' (1990: 5). In contrast, Stenhouse defines curriculum as the attempt to describe what happens in classrooms rather than what actually occurs. Cornbleth further contends that curriculum as practice cannot be understood adequately or changed substantially without attention to its setting or context. Curriculum is contextually shaped. While I may quibble about the simple equation of curriculum with process, what Cornbleth does by focusing on the interaction is to bring out the significance of context.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">First, by introducing the notion of milieu into the discussion of curriculum she again draws attention to the impact of some factors that we have already noted. Of especial significance here are examinations and the social relationships of the school - the nature of the teacher-student relationship, the organization of classes, streaming and so on. These elements are what are sometimes known as the hidden curriculum. This was a term credited to Philip W. Jackson (1968) but it had been present as an acknowledged element in education for some time before. For example, <a href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-dewey.htm"> John Dewey </a>in <i>Experience and Education </i>referred to the 'collateral learning' of attitudes that occur in schools, and that may well be of more long-range importance than the explicit school curriculum (1938: 48). A fairly standard (product) definition of the 'hidden curriculum' is given by Vic Kelly. He argues it is those things which students learn, 'because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements (1988: 8).</span> <span lang="EN-US"> The learning associated with the 'hidden curriculum' is most often treated in a negative way. It is learning that is smuggled in and serves the interests of the status quo. The emphasis on regimentation, on bells and time management, and on streaming are sometimes seen as preparing young people for the world of capitalist production. What we do need to recognize is that such 'hidden' learning is not all negative and can be potentially liberating. 'In so far as they enable students to develop socially valued knowledge and skills... or to form their own peer groups and subcultures, they may contribute to personal and collective autonomy and to possible critique and challenge of existing norms and institutions' (Cornbleth 1990: 50). What we also need to recognize is that by treating curriculum as a contextualized social process, the notion of hidden curriculum becomes rather redundant. If we need to stay in touch with milieu as we build curriculum then it is not hidden but becomes a central part of our processes. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Second, by paying attention to milieu, we can begin to get a better grasp of the impact of structural and socio-cultural process on teachers and students. As Cornbleth argues, economic and gender relations, for example, do not simply bypass the systemic or structural context of curriculum and enter directly into classroom practice. They are mediated by intervening layers of the education system (Cornbleth 1990: 7). Thus, the impact of these factors may be quite different to that expected. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Third, if curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> is inextricably linked to milieu then it becomes clear why there have been problems about introducing it into non-schooling contexts like youth work; and it is to this area which we will now turn.<a name="informal"></a></span></p> <h4><span lang="EN-US">Curriculum as the boundary between formal and informal education</span></h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">Jeffs and Smith (1990; 1999) have argued that the notion of curriculum provides a central dividing line between formal and informal education. They contend that curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> was formed within the schooling context and that there are major problems when it is introduced into informal forms of pedagogy.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">The adoption of curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> by some informal educators appears to have arisen from a desire to be clear about content. Yet there are crucial difficulties with the notion of curriculum in this context. These centre around the extent to which it is possible to have a clear idea, in advance (and even during the process), of the activities and topics that will be involved in a particular piece of work.</span></p> <blockquote><span lang="EN-US">At any one time, outcomes may not be marked by a high degree of specificity. In a similar way, the nature of the activities used often cannot be predicted. It may be that we can say something about how the informal educator will work. However, knowing in advance about broad processes and ethos isn't the same as having a knowledge of the programme. We must, thus, conclude that approaches to the curriculum which focus on objectives and detailed programmes appear to be incompatible with informal education. (<a href="http://www.infed.org/archives/usinginformaleducation/jeffsandsmith1.htm">Jeffs & Smith 1990</a>: 15)</span></blockquote><p><span lang="EN-US">In other words, they are arguing that a product model of curriculum is not compatible with the emphasis on process and praxis within informal education. </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">However, process and praxis models of curriculum also present problems in the context of informal education. If you look back at at our models of process and compare them with the model of informal education presented above then it is clear that we can have a similar problem with pre-specification. One of the key feature that differentiates the two is that the curriculum model has the teacher entering the situation with a proposal for action which sets out the essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Informal educators do not have, and do not need, this element. They do not enter with a clear proposal for action. Rather, they have an idea of what makes for human well-being, and an appreciation of their overall role and strategy (strategy here being some idea about target group and broad method e.g. detached work). They then develop their aims and interventions in interaction. And what is this element we have been discussing? It is nothing more nor less than what Stenhouse considers to be a curriculum! </span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">The other key difference is context. Even if we were to go the whole hog and define curriculum as process there remain substantive problems. As Cornbleth (1990), and Jeffs and Smith (1990, 1999) have argued, curriculum cannot be taken out of context, and the context in which it was formed was the school. Curriculum </span>theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> only makes sense when considered alongside notions like class, teacher, course, lesson and so on. You only have to look at the language that has been used by our main proponents: Tyler, Stenhouse, Cornbleth and Grundy, to see this. It is not a concept that stands on its own. It developed in relation to teaching and within particular organizational relationships and expectations. Alter the context and the nature of the process alters . We then need different ways of describing what is going on. Thus, it is no surprise that when curriculum </span> theory and practice <span lang="EN-US"> are introduced into what are essentially informal forms of working such as youth work and community work, their main impact is to formalize significant aspects of the work. One of the main outcome of curriculum experiments within youth work has been work, for example in the field of health promotion, which involve pre-specified activities, visiting workers, regular meetings and so on. Within the language of youth work these are most often called programmes or projects (<a href="http://www.infed.org/archives/usinginformaleducation/foreman.htm">Foreman 1990</a>). Within a school they would be called a course.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">What is being suggested here is that when informal educators take on the language of curriculum they are crossing the boundary between their chosen specialism and the domain of formal education. This they need to do from time to time. There will be formal interludes in their work, appropriate times for them to mount courses and to discuss content and method in curriculum terms. But we should not fall into the trap of thinking that to be educators we have to adopt curriculum </span>theory and practice<span lang="EN-US">. The fact that so many have been misled into believing this demonstrates just how powerful the ideas of schooling are. Education is something more than schooling. <a name="conclusion"></a></span></p> <h4>Conclusion</h4> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> We have explored four different approaches to curriculum theory and practice:</span></p> <blockquote> <p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be <b>transmitted</b>.</span> </p><p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students - <b>product</b>.</span> </p><p style=""> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as <b>process</b>.</span> </p><p style="margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Curriculum as <b>praxis</b>.</span> </p></blockquote> <p><span lang="EN-US">In a number of respects these different bodies of curriculum theory and practice link to the </span> four main forces in North American curriculum-making in the twentieth century: the liberal educators; the scientific curriculum makers; the developmental/person-centred; and the social meliorists (those that sought more radical social change) (after Kliebart 1987).</p> <div align="center"> <center> <table width="90%" bgcolor="#ffffff" border="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top" width="20%" bgcolor="#ffffff" height="59"><br /></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);" valign="top" width="20%" height="59"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;color:#ffffff;"> the liberal educators</span></b></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);" valign="top" width="20%" height="59"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;color:#ffffff;"> the scientific curriculum makers</span></b></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);" valign="top" width="20%" height="59"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;color:#ffffff;"> the develop- mentalists</span></b></td> <td style="background-color: rgb(128, 128, 128);" valign="top" width="20%" height="59"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;color:#ffffff;"> the social meliorists</span></b></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20%" bg height="201" style="color:#ffffff;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"><b> Orientation</b></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="201"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> Guardians of an ancient tradition tied to the power of reason and the finest elements of the Western cultural heritage</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="201"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Human life consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. </span> </span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="201"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> The natural order of development in the child was most significant and scientifically defensible basis for determining what should be taught</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="201"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Schools as a major, perhaps the, principal force for social change and social justice</span></span></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20%" bg height="310" style="color:#ffffff;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"><b> Curriculum</b></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="310"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Systematic development of reasoning power and the communication of 'the canon'.</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="310"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> Influenced by the rise of scientific management and notions of social efficiency. Focus on setting objectives (<span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US">the statement of changes to take place in the students) and the organization of schooling to meet these.</span> </span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="310"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> Sought <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> a curriculum in harmony with the child's 'real' interests, needs and learning patterns</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="310"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Corruption and vice, inequalities of race and gender, and the abuse of privilege and power should be addressed directly. with the aim of raising a new generation equipped to deal effectively with these abuses.</span></span></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20%" bg height="68" style="color:#ffffff;"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"><b> Key thinkers</b></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="68"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> Charles W. Taylor</span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="68"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Franklin Bobbitt and Ralph W. Tyler</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="68"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> G. Stanley Hall</span></span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="68"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> <span style="color: black;" lang="EN-US"> Lester Frank Ward</span></span></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" width="20%" bg height="26" style="color:#ffffff;"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> Linked to</span></b></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="26"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> transmission</span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="26"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> product</span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="26"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> process</span></td> <td class="style3" valign="top" width="20%" height="26"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"> praxis</span></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </center> </div> <p>We shouldn't push the similarities too far - but there are some interesting overlaps - and this does alert us both to the changing understanding and to shifting policy orientations over time. </p> <p>For the moment we are having to operate within a policy environment that prizes the productive and technical. Furthermore, the discourse has become so totalizing that forms of education that do not have a curricula basis are squeezed. The temptation is always there to either be colonized by curriculum theory or adopt ways of describing practice that do not make sense in terms of the processes and commitments involved. Kleibart's analysis provides us with some hope - things will change. However, there is no guarantee that they will move in a more edifying direction. <a name="furtherreading"></a></p> <h4>Further reading and references</h4> <p>I have picked out some books that have the greatest utility for those concerned with informal education and lifelong learning.</p> <p>Caffarella, R. S. (1994) <em>Planning Programs for Adult Learners. A practical guide for educators, trainers and staff developers</em>, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 248 pages. Just what the title says - but has the advantage of many manuals in this area in that the underlying model is dynamic and interactive and avoids some of the problems with linear planning models. Clearly written with plenty of worksheets etc.</p> <p>Griffin, C. (1987) <em> Curriculum Theory in Adult and Lifelong Education</em>, London: Croom Helm. 218 pages. Explores the use of curriculum theory and practice in non-school settings. Particular attention is paid to Illich, Freire, Gelpi etc.</p> <p> Grundy, S. (1987) <em>Curriculum: Product or Praxis</em>, Lewes: Falmer. 209 + ix pages. Good discussion of the nature of curriculum theory and practice from a critical perspective. Grundy starts from Habermas' theorisation of knowledge and human interest and makes use of Aristotle to develop a models of curriculum around product, process and praxis.</p> <p> Houle, C. O. (1972) <em>The Design of Education</em>, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 323 pages. Influential statement of theory and practice with regard to a fundamental structure for program design. Identifies basic situations (eleven in all) in which programs are planned and discusses their operation.</p> <p> Kliebard, H. M. (1987) <em>The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893 - 1958</em>, New York: Routledge. 300 + xvii pages. A cracker of a book which charts the development of different curricula traditions and the political and social context in which they arose. He unpicks suspect notions such as 'progressive education' and demonstrates how Dewey in particular is positioned outside the main competing traditions. The movement between mental discipline, child centredness, scientific curriculum making (Taylorism) and social meliorism provides a very helpful set of insights into the theory and process of curriculum making within adult education.</p> <p>Knowles, M. S. (1980) <em> The Modern Practice of Adult Education. From pedagogy to andragogy</em> 2e, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Cambridge/Prentice Hall. 400 pages. Pretty much the standard US work on practical program design in the 1970s and 1980s. Based around Knowles' assumptions concerning the way adults learn with some leanings to behaviouralism. Part one explores the emerging role and technology of adult education; Part two organizing and administering comprehensive programs of adult education; and Part three reflects on helping adults learn. Extensive appendices provide various exhibits and additional models. See also Knowles (1950) <em> Informal Adult Education. A guide for administrators, leaders and teachers</em>, New York: Association Press (272 pages) for an early but still useful review of program design and implementation within an NGO (Chicago YMCA).</p> <p>Langenbach, M. (1988) <em>Curriculum Models in Adult Education</em>, Malibar: Krieger. 228 pages. Argues that adult educators must have a sound understanding of program design. Reviews different models of curriculum theory and practice (largely US) and assesses some specific areas of practice such as continuing professional education and literacy education. </p> <p>Ross, A. (2000) <i> Curriculum: Construction and critique</i>, London: Falmer Press. 187 + xiii pages. Helpful overview of the history of curriculum development in Britain</p> <p> Stenhouse, L. (1975) <em>An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development</em>, London: Heinemann. 248 + viii pages. Classic statement of a process approach to the theory and practice of curriculum making. Chapters explore the nature of the curriculum problem; the content of education; teaching; the school as an institution; behavioural objectives and curriculum development; a critique of the objectives model; the process model; evaluation; a research model of curriculum development; the teacher as researcher; and the school and innovation.</p> <p>Thornton, S. J. and Flinders, D. J. (eds.) (1997) <i>The Curriculum Studies Reader</i>, London: Routledge. 416 pages. Excellent collection of 30 readings that provides both a sample of enduring work and more recent material around curriculum theory and practice. Includes: Bobbitt, Dewey, Counts, Kliebard, Eisner, Jackson, Schwab, Greene, Freire, McLaughlin, Ravitch, Glazer, Apple, Lieberman and more.</p> <p> Tyler, R. W. (1949) <em>Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction</em>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 128 pages. Important discussion of product-oriented curriculum building. The process is clear from the chapter titles: what educational purposes should the school seek to attain? How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives? How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction? How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? How a school or college staff may work on curriculum building.</p> <p>Wragg, T. (1997) <em>The Cubic Curriculum, </em>London: Routledge. 120 + x pages. Put aside the naff tittle - this book provides an accessible model of cur riculum building that attempts to incorporate a 'vision of the future'; a recognition that there are escalating demands on citizens, a belief that (children's) learning must be inspired by several influences; and lastly that it is essential to see the curriculum as much more than a mere collection of subjects and syllabuses. Wragg's 'cubic curriculum' has three dimensions: subject matter; cross-curricular themes and issues that influence children's general development; and the different methods of teaching and learning that can be employed. The concern is to provide a model for practice - so the book is a bit lightweight with regard to competing conceptualizations of curriculum and alternatives to curriculum thinking.</p> <h4><span lang="EN-US">References</span></h4> <p><span lang="EN-US">Aristotle (1976) <i>The Nicomachean Ethics </i>('Ethics'), Harmondsworth: Penguin.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Barnes, J. (1976) 'Introduction' to Aristotle <i>The Nicomachean Ethics </i>('Ethics'), Harmondsworth: Penguin.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Barrow, R. (1984) <i>Giving Teaching back to Teachers. A critical introduction to curriculum theory</i>, Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Blenkin, G. M. et al (1992) <i>Change and the Curriculu,</i>, London: Paul Chapman.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Bobbitt, F. (1918) <i>The Curriculum</i>, Boston: Houghton Mifflin</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Bobbitt, F. (1928) <i>How to Make a Curriculum</i>, Boston: Houghton Mifflin</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) <i>Becoming Critical. Education, knowledge and action research</i>, Lewes: Falmer Press</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Cornbleth, C. (1990) <i>Curriculum in Context</i>, Basingstoke: Falmer Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Curzon, L. B. (1985) <i>Teaching in Further Education. An outline of principles and practice</i> 3e, London: Cassell.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Dewey, J. (1902) <i>The Child and the Curriculum</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Dewey, J. (1938) <i>Experience and Education</i>, New York: Macmillan.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Eisner, E. W. (1985) <i>The Art of Educational Evaluation</i>, Lewes: Falmer Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Foreman, A. (1990) 'Personality and curriculum' in T. Jeffs. & M. Smith (eds.) (1990) <i>Using Informal Education. An alternative to casework, teaching and control?</i> Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Also in the <a href="http://www.infed.org/archives/usinginformaleducation/foreman.htm"> archives</a>.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Freire, P. (1972) <i>Pedagogy of the Oppressed</i>, Harmondsworth: Penguin.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Grundy, S. (1987) <i>Curriculum: product or praxis?</i> Lewes: Falmer Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Jackson, P. W. (1968) <i>Life in Classrooms</i>, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Jeffs, T. & Smith, M. (eds.) (1990) <i> Using Informal Education. An alternative to casework, teaching and control?</i> Milton Keynes: Open University Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Jeffs, T. J. and Smith, M. K. (1999) <i> Informal Education. Conversation, democracy and learning</i>, Ticknall: Education Now.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Kelly, A. V. (1983; 1999) <i>The Curriculum. Theory and practice </i>4e, London: Paul Chapman.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Stenhouse, L. (1975) <i>An introduction to Curriculum Research and Development</i>, London: Heineman.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Newman, E. & G. Ingram (1989) <i>The Youth Work Curriculum</i>, London: Further Education Unit (FEU).</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Taba, H. (1962) <i>Curriculum Development: Theory and practice</i>, New York: Harcourt Brace and World.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Tyler, R. W. (1949) <i>Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</span></p> <p><span lang="EN-US">Usher, R. & I. Bryant (1989) <i>Adult Education as Theory, Practice and Research. The captive triangle</i>, London: Routledge.<a name="links"></a></span></p> <h4>Links</h4> <p><a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/knowledge.htm">Knowledge</a></p> <p><a name="cite"></a><b> How to cite this article</b>: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory and practice' <i>the encyclopedia of informal education, </i><a href="http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm"> www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm</a>. </p> <span style="font-family:Arial Narrow;font-size:85%;color:#000080;"><strong><br /></strong></span> © <a href="http://www.infed.org/hp-smith.htm"> Mark K. Smith</a> 1996, 2000<br /><br /><p> <b>Mark K. Smith</b> specializes in the field of informal education and community learning. He is the Rank Research Fellow and Tutor at YMCA George Williams College, London and has been a Visiting Professor in Community Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. Among his books are <em>Creators not Consumers </em>(1982)<em>, Developing Youth Work </em>(1988)<em>, Local Education</em> (1994), <em>Informal Education </em>(1996, 1999, 2005 with Tony Jeffs),<i> The Art of Helping Others </i>(2008, written with<i> </i>Heather Smith) and <i>Youth Work Practice <img alt="picture: mark k smith" src="http://www.infed.org/images/people/mark_smith.jpg" style="float: right;" class="style101" /></i>(forthcoming, edited with Tony Jeffs). He is currently working with the Rank Foundation on an rolling evaluation of their <em>Youth or Adult? </em>Initiative and on two new initiatives around community development and the needs of young carers. </p> <p><span lang="EN-GB">Mark K. Smith</span><span lang="EN-GB"> has worked as a careers officer, youth and community worker</span>,<span lang="EN-GB"> and project worker.</span> He studied economics and politics at the University of Lancaster, and did his doctorate in the philosophy of education at the University of London.<span lang="EN-GB"> </span> </p> <p>YMCA George Williams College, 199 Freemasons Road, Canning Town, London E16 3PY, United Kingdom. Telephone 020 7540 4929; Fax 020 7511 4900; Minicom 020 7511 4901. Direct line/voice mail: 020 7540 4929. E-mail: <b><a href="mailto:smith@infed.org"> smith@infed.org</a></b></p>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-53285860826446091292008-09-16T17:33:00.000-07:002008-09-16T17:39:25.929-07:00Curriculum<div style="text-align: justify;">In formal education, a <b>curriculum</b> (plural <b>curricula</b>) is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>. As an idea, <b>curriculum</b> stems from the Latin word for <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_course" title="Race course" class="mw-redirect">race course</a></i>, referring to the course of <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deed" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:deed">deeds</a> and experiences through which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children" title="Children" class="mw-redirect">children</a> grow and mature in becoming <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adults" title="Adults" class="mw-redirect">adults</a>. </div><table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"><br /></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Historical_conception.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-00000009-QINU.7F1.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000A-QINU.7F.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000C-QINU.7F2.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000D-QINU.7F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Historical conception<sup>[1]</sup><sup>[2]</sup></span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Curriculum_in_formal_schooling"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Curriculum in formal schooling</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Core_curriculum"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Core curriculum</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Examples_in_higher_education"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Examples in higher education</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Choice_v._curriculum"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Choice v. curriculum</span></a></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#Sample_curricula"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Sample curricula</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li></ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Historical_conception.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-00000009-QINU.7F1.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000A-QINU.7F.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000C-QINU.7F2.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000D-QINU.7F" id="Historical_conception.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-00000009-QINU.7F1.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000A-QINU.7F.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000C-QINU.7F2.7FUNIQ2dad774f7b54c0bd-nowiki-0000000D-QINU.7F"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Historical conception<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup></span></h2><br /><p style="text-align: justify;">In <i>The Curriculum</i><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup>, the first textbook published on the subject, in 1918, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin_Bobbitt" title="John Franklin Bobbitt">John Franklin Bobbitt</a> said that curriculum, as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">idea</a>, has its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_%28linguistics%29" title="Root (linguistics)">roots</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word for <i>race-course</i>, explaining the curriculum as the course of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deeds" title="Deeds">deeds</a> and experiences through which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children" title="Children" class="mw-redirect">children</a> become the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adults" title="Adults" class="mw-redirect">adults</a> they should be, <i>for success in adult <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a></i>. Furthermore, the curriculum encompasses the entire scope of formative deed and experience occurring in and out of school, and not experiences occurring in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a>; experiences that are unplanned and undirected, and experiences intentionally directed for the purposeful formation of adult members of society. (cf. image at right.)</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">To Bobbitt, the curriculum is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering" title="Social engineering">social engineering</a> arena. Per his cultural presumptions and social definitions, his curricular formulation has two notable features: (i) that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific" title="Scientific" class="mw-redirect">scientific</a> experts would best be qualified to and justified in designing curricula based upon their expert <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> of what qualities are desirable in adult members of society, and which experiences would generate said qualities; and (ii) curriculum defined as the deeds-experiences the student <i>ought to have</i> to become the adult he or she <i>ought become</i>.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">Hence, he defined the curriculum as an ideal, rather than as the concrete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> of the deeds and experiences that form people to who and what they are.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">Contemporary views of curriculum reject these features of Bobbitt's postulates, but retain the basis of curriculum as the course of experience(s) that forms human beings in to persons. Personal formation via curricula is studied at the personal level and at the group level, i.e. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultures" title="Cultures" class="mw-redirect">cultures</a> and societies (e.g. professional formation, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline" class="mw-redirect">academic discipline</a> via historical experience). The formation of a group is reciprocal, with the formation of its individual participants.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">Although it formally appeared in Bobbitt's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a>, curriculum as a course of formative experience also pervades <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>'s work (who disagreed with Bobbitt on important matters). Although Bobbitt's and Dewey's idealistic understanding of "curriculum" is different from current, restricted uses of the word, curriculum writers and researchers generally share it as common, substantive understanding of curriculum.</p> <p><a name="Curriculum_in_formal_schooling" id="Curriculum_in_formal_schooling"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Curriculum in formal schooling</span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify;">In formal education or schooling (cf. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>), a <b>curriculum</b> is the set of courses, course work, and content offered at a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>. A curriculum may be partly or entirely determined by an external, authoritative body (i.e. the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Curriculum_for_England" title="National Curriculum for England" class="mw-redirect">National Curriculum for England</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> schools). In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a>, each <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State" title="State">state</a>, with the individual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_district" title="School district">school districts</a>, establishes the curricula taught<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup>. Each state, however, builds its curriculum with great participation of national<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup> academic subject groups selected by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education" title="United States Department of Education">United States Department of Education</a>, e.g. <a href="http://www.nctm.org/" class="external text" title="http://www.nctm.org/" rel="nofollow">National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)</a> for mathematical instruction. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> each state's Education Department establishes curricula. UNESCO's <a href="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/" class="external text" title="http://www.ibe.unesco.org/" rel="nofollow">International Bureau of Education</a> has the primary mission of studying curricula and their implementation worldwide.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><i>Curriculum</i><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-5" title="">[6]</a></sup> means two things: (i) the range of courses from which students choose what subject matters to study, and (ii) a specific learning program. In the latter case, the curriculum collectively describes the teaching, learning, and assessment materials available for a given course of study.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">Currently, a <i>spiral curriculum</i> (or <i>tycoil curriculum</i>) is promoted as allowing students to revisit a subject matter's content at the different levels of development of the subject matter being studied. The constructivist approach, of the <i>tycoil curriculum</i>, proposes that children learn best via active engagement with the educational environment, i.e. discovery learning.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">A crucial aspect for learning, understanding by stimulating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination" title="Imagination">imagination</a>, is absent in the so-called "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-conservative" title="Neo-conservative" class="mw-redirect">neo-conservative</a> curriculum" that stresses the ineffective aspects of knowledge amounts and of logico-mathematical thinking, i.e. rote learning.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-6" title="">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_note-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">Crucial to the curriculum is the definition of the course objectives that usually are expressed as <i>learning outcomes'</i> and normally include the program's <b>assessment strategy</b>. These outcomes and assessments are grouped as <b>units</b> (or modules), and, therefore, the curriculum comprises a collection of such units, each, in turn, comprising a specialised, specific part of the curriculum. So, a typical curriculum includes communications, numeracy, information technology, and social skills units, with specific, specialized teaching of each.</p> <p><a name="Core_curriculum" id="Core_curriculum"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Core curriculum</span></h3> <div class="dablink"><div style="text-align: justify;">For the Columbia College curriculum, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_Curriculum_%28Columbia_College%29" title="Core Curriculum (Columbia College)">Core Curriculum (Columbia College)</a>.<br /></div><p style="text-align: justify;">In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, a <b>core curriculum</b> is a <strong class="selflink">curriculum</strong>, or course of study, which is deemed central and usually made mandatory for all students of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" title="School">school</a> or school system. Core curricula are often instituted, at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education" title="Secondary education">secondary</a> levels, by school boards, Departments of Education, or other administrative agencies charged with overseeing education. At the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate" title="Undergraduate" class="mw-redirect">undergraduate</a> level, individual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College" title="College">college</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> administrations and faculties sometimes mandate core curricula, especially in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a>. But because of increasing specialization and depth in the student's major field of study, a typical core curriculum in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education" title="Higher education">higher education</a> mandates a far smaller proportion of a student's course work than a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_school" title="High school">high school</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school" title="Elementary school">elementary school</a> core curriculum prescribes.</p> <p><a name="Examples_in_higher_education" id="Examples_in_higher_education"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Examples in higher education</span></h4> <p style="text-align: justify;">Amongst the best known and most expansive core curricula programs at leading American colleges are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_Curriculum_%28Columbia_College%29" title="Core Curriculum (Columbia College)">that of Columbia College</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, as well as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>'s. Both can take up to two years to complete without <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_standing" title="Advanced standing" class="mw-redirect">advanced standing</a>, and are designed to foster critical skills in a broad range of academic disciplines, including: the social sciences, humanities, physical and biological sciences, mathematics, writing and foreign languages. However, other selective institutions have largely done away with core requirements in their entirety, the most famous<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV" title="Wikipedia:NPOV" class="mw-redirect">Neutrality disputed</a> — <span>See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Curriculum" title="Talk:Curriculum">talk page</a></span></i>]</span></sup> being the student-driven course selection of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>. Further, as core curricula began to be diminished over the course of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_century" title="Twentieth century" class="mw-redirect">twentieth century</a> at many American schools, several smaller institutions became famous for embracing a core curriculum that covers nearly the student’s entire undergraduate education, often utilizing classic texts of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">western canon</a> to teach all subjects including science. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_College,_U.S." title="St. John's College, U.S.">St. John’s College</a> in the United States remains famous in this vein.</p> <p><a name="Choice_v._curriculum" id="Choice_v._curriculum"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">Choice v. curriculum</span></h4> <p style="text-align: justify;">Many educational institutions are currently trying to balance two opposing forces: On the one hand, some believe students should have a common knowledge foundation, often in the form of a core curriculum; on the other hand, others want students to be able to pursue their own educational interests, often through early specialty in a major, however, other times through the free choice of courses. This tension has received a large amount of coverage due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s reorganization of its core requirements.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">For example, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999" title="1999">1999</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> announced plans to reduce and modify the content of its core curriculum, including lowering the number of required courses from 21 to 15 and offering a wider range of content. When <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i>, and other major news outlets picked up this story, the University became the focal point of a national debate on education. The National Association of Scholars released a statement saying, "<i>It is truly depressing to observe a steady abandonment of the University of Chicago's once imposing undergraduate core curriculum, which for so long stood as the benchmark of content and rigor among American academic institutions.</i>"<a href="http://www.nas.org/print/pressreleases/hqnas/releas_16apr02.htm" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.nas.org/print/pressreleases/hqnas/releas_16apr02.htm" rel="nofollow">[1]</a>Simultaneously, however, a set of university administrators, notably then-President <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_F._Sonnenschein" title="Hugo F. Sonnenschein">Hugo Sonnenschein</a>, argued that reducing the core curriculum had become both a financial and educational imperative, as the university was struggling to attract a commensurate volume of applicants to its undergraduate division compared to peer schools as a result of what was perceived by the pro-change camp as a reaction by “the average eighteen year old” to the expanse of the collegiate core.</p> <p><a name="Sample_curricula" id="Sample_curricula"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Sample curricula</span></h2> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_education" title="Mathematics education">Mathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_mathematics" title="Business mathematics">Business mathematics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">Algebra</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">Geometry</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a></li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_education" title="Reading education">Reading</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_education" title="Media education" class="mw-redirect">Media education</a></li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a></li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages" title="Languages" class="mw-redirect">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_language" title="Modern language">Modern languages</a> (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_languages" title="Classical languages" class="mw-redirect">Classical languages</a> (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language" title="Latin language" class="mw-redirect">Latin</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>)</li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Education" title="Music Education" class="mw-redirect">Music</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater" class="mw-redirect">Theater</a></li></ul> </li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_education" title="Sexual education" class="mw-redirect">Sexual education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Science" title="Political Science" class="mw-redirect">Political education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies" title="Social studies">Social studies</a> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Studies" title="Modern Studies">Modern Studies</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civics" title="Civics">Civics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul> </li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_technology" title="Design technology" class="mw-redirect">Design technology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_%28education%29" title="ICT (education)" class="mw-redirect">Computing studies</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_education" title="Military education" class="mw-redirect">Military education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Religious education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics" title="Home economics" class="mw-redirect">Home economics</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">Vocational education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Public speaking</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_skills" title="Study skills">Study skills</a></li></ul> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2> <div class="infobox sisterproject" style="float: right;"> <div style="float: left;"> <div class="floatnone"><span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg" class="image" title="Wiktionary-logo-en.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/49px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png" width="49" border="0" height="53" /></a></span></div> </div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;">Look up <i><b><a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/curriculum" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/curriculum">Curriculum</a></b></i> in<br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div> </div> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_advising" title="Academic advising">academic advising</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europass" title="Europass">Europass</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_catalog_%28education%29" title="Course catalog (education)">course catalog (education)</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_Atlas_%28education%29" title="Course Atlas (education)">Course Atlas (education)</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum_studies" title="Curriculum studies">Curriculum studies</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson" title="Lesson">lesson</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesson_plan" title="Lesson plan">lesson plan</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching" class="mw-redirect">teaching</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracurricular_activity" title="Extracurricular activity">extracurricular activity</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_of_a_career" title="Description of a career" class="mw-redirect">description of a career</a> (DOAC)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">hidden curriculum</a> and the specific book <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hidden_Curriculum" title="The Hidden Curriculum" class="mw-redirect">The Hidden Curriculum</a></i></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvert_School" title="Calvert School">Calvert School</a></li><li><a href="http://www.teachshare.org/" class="external text" title="http://www.teachshare.org" rel="nofollow">The Community Curriculum Project</a></li></ul> <p><a name="References" id="References"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2> <div class="references-small"> <ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-0" title="">^</a></b> Jackson, Philip W. "Conceptions of Curriculum and Curriculum Specialists." In Handbook of Research on Curriculum: A Project of the American Educational Research Association, edited by Philip W. Jackson, 3-40. New York: Macmillan Pub. Co., 1992.</li><li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-1" title="">^</a></b> Pinar, William F., William M. Reynolds, Patrick Slattery, and Peter M. Taubman. Understanding Curriculum: An Introduction to the Study of Historical and Contemporary Curriculum Discourses. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.</li><li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-2" title="">^</a></b> Bobbitt, John Franklin. The Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918.</li><li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-3" title="">^</a></b> <a href="http://hnn.us/articles/22591.html" class="external text" title="http://hnn.us/articles/22591.html" rel="nofollow">National Education Standards...They're Back!</a> (article)</li><li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-4" title="">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.brook.edu/press/books/NATLSTDS2.HTM" class="external text" title="http://www.brook.edu/press/books/NATLSTDS2.HTM" rel="nofollow">Diane Ravitch, National Standards in American Education A Citizen's Guide</a> (book)</li><li id="cite_note-5"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-5" title="">^</a></b> Kelly, A.V. (1989) The Curriculum: theory and practice 3rd Ed</li><li id="cite_note-6"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-6" title="">^</a></b> Norman, R. (2000) <i>Cultivating Imagination in Adult Education</i> Proceedings of the 41st Annual Adult Education Research.</li><li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum#cite_ref-7" title="">^</a></b> Egan, K. (1992). <i>Imagination in Teaching and Learning</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li></ol> </div> <ul><li><a href="http://www.wcci-international.org/" class="external text" title="http://www.wcci-international.org/" rel="nofollow">World Council for Curriculum and Instruction</a></li></ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Preprocessor node count: 328/1000000 Post-expand include size: 3813/2048000 bytes Template argument size: 1154/2048000 bytes Expensive parser function count: 0/500 --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:479983-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20080916162844 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum</a>"</div> <div id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <span dir="ltr"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Curricula" title="Category:Curricula">Curricula</a></span> | <span dir="ltr"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Didactics" title="Category:Didactics">Didactics</a></span></div><br /></div>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-34283870105106745802008-09-06T10:22:00.000-07:002008-09-06T10:56:38.875-07:00A Time Capsule of Training and Learning<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8vhjW5cslw18FSHt4g7LzdZrNcUH6BJSKWR97b6LSiBioOnWEZvvhq9BizFpcXRGmAlPie6NKEt-5jjsOj-FMqYEON_2gb8yyCdLB_5B9kVWzpqaO1ioFDLaEkSmnO7jZAM_OhY7_XqAk/s1600-h/partere+arip+nurahman.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8vhjW5cslw18FSHt4g7LzdZrNcUH6BJSKWR97b6LSiBioOnWEZvvhq9BizFpcXRGmAlPie6NKEt-5jjsOj-FMqYEON_2gb8yyCdLB_5B9kVWzpqaO1ioFDLaEkSmnO7jZAM_OhY7_XqAk/s400/partere+arip+nurahman.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5242968613359409538" border="0" /></a><br /><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">A (Very) Brief <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 102);">History</span> of <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> Theory</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /><br /><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Matthew D. Laliberte</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Worcester Polytechnic Institute</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">NERCOMP SIG 01.19.05</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> as a Black Box</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">So what</span><span style="font-size:100%;">’s happening inside the box?</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">A Superficial Review</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Behaviorism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Cognitivism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Social <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> Theory</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Social Constructivism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Multiple Intelligences</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Brain-Based <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Behaviorism</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Focuses solely on observable behaviors</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">A biological basis for <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> is context-independent</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Classical & Operant Conditioning</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Reflexes (Pavlov</span><span style="font-size:100%;">’s Dogs)</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner</span><span style="font-size:100%;">’s Pigeon Box)</span></li></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Behaviorism in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Rewards and punishments</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Responsibility for student <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> rests squarely with the teacher</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Lecture-based, highly structured</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of Behaviorism</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Advocates for passive student <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> in a teacher-centric environment</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">One size fits all</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Knowledge itself is given and absolute</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Cognitivism</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew in response to Behaviorism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Cognitivism cont.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Jean Piaget</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Genetic Epistemology</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Assimilation and Accommodation</span></li></ul></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Jerome Bruner</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Discovery <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span></span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Learner as independent problem-solver</span></li></ul></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Cognitivism in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Inquiry-oriented projects</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Curiosity encouraged</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Staged scaffolding</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of Cognitivism</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Input </span><span style="font-size:100%;">– Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not account enough for individuality</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Little emphasis on affective characteristics</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Social <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> Theory (SLT)</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew out of Cognitivism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">A. Bandura (1973)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> takes place through observation and sensorial experiences</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Bobo Doll Experiment</span></li></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">SLT in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Collaborative <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> and group work</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Modeling responses and expectations</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Opportunities to observe experts in action</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of Social <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> Theory </span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Social Constructivism</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Knowledge is actively constructed </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> is</span><span style="font-size:100%;">…</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">A search for meaning by the learner</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Contextualized</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">An inherently social activity</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Dialogic and recursive</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">The responsibility of the learner</span></li></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Lev Vygotsky</span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Social <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span></span></li><ul type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Zone of Proximal Development</span></li></ul></ul></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Social Constructivism in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Journaling</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Experiential activities</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Personal focus</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Collaborative & cooperative <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of Social Constructivism </span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Multiple Intelligences (MI)</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">H. Gardner (1983 to present)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">All people are born with eight intelligences:</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">8. Intrapersonal</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">4. Kinesthetic</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">7. Interpersonal</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">3. Logical-Mathematical</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">6. Naturalist</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">2. Visual-Spatial</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">5. Musical</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">1. Verbal-Linguistic</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">MI in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Student-centered classroom</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Authentic Assessment</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Self-directed <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of MI</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Development process is a time-sink</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Brain-Based <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> (BBL)</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980</span><span style="font-size:100%;">’s to present)</span></li><li><span style="font-size:100%;">12 governing principles</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">12. Every brain is unique</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">6. Processing of parts and wholes</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">11. Challenge & threat</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">5. Emotions are critical</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">10. Embedded <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> sticks</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">4. Patterning</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">9. Several types of memory</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">3. A search for meaning</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">8. Conscious & unconscious processes</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">2. Whole body <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">7. Focused attention & peripheral perception</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">1. Brain is a parallel processor</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">BBL in the Classroom</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Opportunities for group <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Regular environmental changes</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">A multi-sensory environment </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Opportunities for self-expression and making personal connections to content</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Community-based <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Critiques of BBL</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes </span><span style="font-size:100%;">“brain-based” <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> questionable</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Individual principles have been scientifically questioned</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Other <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> Theories of Note</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Andragogy (M. Knowles)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Situated <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> (J. Lave)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><ul style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;" type="disc"><li><span style="font-size:100%;">Conditions of <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> (R. Gagne)</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">Learning</span> as a Not-So-Black Box</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Biological basis for <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> – you have it or you don’t…it’s a thing you inherit </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Grew in response to Behaviorism in an effort to better understand the mental processes behind <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Assimilation: The integration of new information into an existing symbol system</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Accommodation: The adjustment of internal symbol systems to make space for new information that challenges the structure</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Staged scaffolding: not based on ability or experience…based on developmental stage (age most predominantly)</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not account enough for individuality and differences in staged development</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Little emphasis on affective characteristics, especially motivation</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Imitation: Individuals adopt the modeled behavior more readily and completely if the person they are observing is admired by the observer</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">We more readily model behavior if it results in outcomes we value or approve of</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Think of a laboratory environment, for instance. What’s more effective in your estimation…watching the faculty member conduct the lab, or you doing it yourself? </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Knowledge is actively constructed by individuals in light of and in relation to our past experiences, the context of <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span>, personal motivation, and our beliefs/attitudes/prior knowledge</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Think of the lab…instead of just watching it being done, the student acts as the active agent conducting the lab, with expert support leading them to the edge of their knowledge and beyond.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Dialogic: central focus is on written & spoken dialogue</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Recursive: new <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> is built upon prior <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span>…scaffolding</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute, but is rather an individual construct</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters that do not provide a flexible timeframe for <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /></div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;font-family:georgia;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Metacognition – simply put is <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span> about <span style="color: black; background-color: rgb(160, 255, 255);">learning</span>, but more realistically, it’s about kn owing who you are as a learner, and developing the capacity to leverage your strengths to your advantage while purposefully addressing your weaknesses</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:georgia;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:Arial;font-size:100%;" >Individual principles have been scientifically questioned (left/right brain laterality)</span><br /></div><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;font-size:130%;" ><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/ojt.html">On-The-Job Training (OJT)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/chinese.html">Chinese Philosophy - 5th-century BC</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/greek.html">Greek Philosophy - 300 BC</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/apprenticeship.html">Apprenticeship - Middle Ages</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/pedagogy.html">Early Schools and Pedagogy - 10th Century</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/comenius.html">John Comenius - (Jan Komensky) (1592-1670)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/locke.html">John Locke (1632-1704)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/rousseau.html">Jean Jacques Rousseau - 1762 </a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/pestalozzi.html">Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - late 1700s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/gaming.html">Gaming - 1800s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/herbart.html">Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/lyceum.html">The Lyceum - 1826</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/vestibule.html">Vestibule Training - late 1800s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/case.html">Case Method (Case Study) - 1880s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/correspondence.html">Correspondence Schools - 1883</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/war1.html">Word War I - Show, Tell, Do, and Check - 1917</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/dewey.html">John Dewey - (1867-1949)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/arousal.html">Yerkes-Dodson law - Arousal - 1908</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/roleplay.html">Role-playing - 1910</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/taylor.html">Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1950)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/pavlov.html">Ivan Pavlov - Stimulus-Response - 1927</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/watson.html">J. B. Watson and Behaviorism - 1900s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/gestalt.html">Gestalt - 1912</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/machine.html">The Teaching Machine - 1924</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/lindeman.html">Eduard C. Lindeman - 1926</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/thorndike.html">Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/andragogy.html">Andragogy - 1920s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/hawthorne.html">Hawthorne Effect - 1932</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/piaget.html">Jean Piaget (1896-1980)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/likert.html">Likert Scales - 1932</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/constructivism.html">Constructivism - 1930s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/discovery.html">Discovery Learning - 1940s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/jit.html">Job Instruction Training (JIT) - 1940s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/jobaid.html">Job-Performance-Aid (or Job Aid) - 1940s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/astd.html">The American Society for Training and Development</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/maslow.html">Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)</a><br /><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;font-size:130%;" ><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/practice.html">Practice - 1946</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/lewin.html">Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/tgroup.html">T-Groups - 1947</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/od.html">Organizational Development - 1949</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/cognitive.html">Cognitive Science - 1950s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/isd.html">Instructional Systems Design (ISD) - 1950s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/bloom.html">Benjamin Bloom - 1956</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/kirkpatrick.html">Don Kirkpatrick and Evaluating Training - 1959</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/herzberg.html">Herzberg's Motivational Factors - 1959</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/skinner.html">B. F. Skinner (1904 -1990)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/skinner.html"> </a><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/xy.html">Theory X and Theory Y - 1960</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/rogers.html">Carl Rogers (1902-1987)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/bandura.html">Albert Bandura - 1960s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/id.html">Instructional Design - 1962</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/objectives.html">Performance Objectives - 1962</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/gagne.html">Robert Gagne - 1962</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/grid.html">The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid - 1964</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/trainingmag.html">Training Magazine - (1964)</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/tough.html">Alan Tough - 1968</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/psi.html">Fred Keller (PSI) - 1968</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/knowles.html">Malcom Knowles - 1970</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/pi.html">Performance Improvement - 1978</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/lifelong.html">Lifelong Learning - 1981</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/peters.html">The Grandfather of Business Books - 1982</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/mi.html">Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences - 1983</a> <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/kolb.html">Kolb's</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/kolb.html"> </a><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/kolb.html">Learning Styles - 1984</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/adult.html">Adult Education - 1986</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/cbt.html">Computer Based Training (CBT) - 1980s</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/dilbert.html">Dilbert - 1989</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/epss.html">Electronic Performance Support System - 1989</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/learnorg.html">The Learning Organization - 1990</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/knowledge.html">Knowledge Management - 1997</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/future.html">The Future - 2000 and beyond</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/reference.html">Reference</a><br /><br /><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/artwork.html">Artwork Credits</a></span>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-11823417488722105542008-09-06T10:10:00.000-07:002008-09-06T10:17:22.521-07:00Declarative Knowledge<div style="text-align: justify;">John Anderson, of Carnegie-Mellon University, wrote about the two distinctions between declarative and procedural knowledge in his ACT production theory of the unitary theory of cognition. It borrows ideas from Newell's symbolic framework (1972). The ACT production system proposed a distinction between procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge. </div><p style="text-align: justify;"> In 1983, Anderson provided a fuller description of the ACT and developed a theory called ACT*. This, in turn, evolved into the ACT-R (Atomic Components of Thought) theory (1993), in which an architecture of cognition is modeled to explain how the process of acquisition can be tuned to the statistical structure of the environment. </p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Defining</h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <i>Declarative knowledge</i> is knowing "that" (e.g., that Washington D.C. is the capital of America), as opposed to <i>procedural knowledge</i> is knowing "how" (e.g., how to drive a car). </div><p style="text-align: justify;"> Declarative knowledge is further divided into: </p><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li>Episodic knowledge: memory for "episodes" (eg., the context of where, when, who with etc); usually measured by accuracy measures, has autobiographical reference. </li><li>Semantic knowledge: Memory for knowledge of the world, facts, meaning of words, etc. (eg., knowing that the first month of the year is April (alphabetically) but January (chronologically). </li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Procedural Overlap</h2><div style="text-align: justify;">When training complex cognitive skills, what we are normally saying is that there will be "procedural overlap" -- the skills and knowledge that have been compiled while practicing in the learning environment are applicable back on the job. That is, we are assuming that a transfer from the learned task to the new task will be positive in that the underlying set of "productions" overlap. A production is a set of conditions-action pairs (if-then) and are the building blocks of procedural knowledge. </div><p style="text-align: justify;"> The trouble with this approach is that experts use <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/learning/artifacts.html">"declarative knowledge"</a> when problem solving -- proposition models in which highly complex <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/learning/declarative_knowledge.html#schemata">schemata</a> are built from: </p><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li>Plans (simple): How goals, which are distinguished by an artifact are related to time and space. </li><li>Concepts (simple): The representation of a class of objects, events, or other entities by their characteristic feature or mental image. </li><li>Principles (simple): How one change is related to another change </li><li>Causal Network (complex): A combination of principles and concepts that are linked to each other with cause and effect and/or natural-process relationships. </li><li>Goal-Plan Hierarchies (complex): Goal and/or plan structures that are linked to each other with non-arbitrary relationships. </li><li>Conceptional model (complex): Concepts that are linked to each other with non-arbitrary relationships, such as a concept map. </li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> So in reality, we expect the learners to transfer a simple production system into a highly complex cognitive schemata system. But they simply have nothing to build upon. We know that learning, innovation, creativity, and all the other things that go into creating complex knowledge are best accomplished by constructing a scaffold that allows one to connect various contexts such as relationships, physical tools, and mental tools. Yet we give them a very short step ladder (the production) that can be used to change a light-bulb, however, what they really need is a scaffold that will allow them to reach several stories (declarative knowledge). </div><p style="text-align: justify;">And the main reasons are simply resources and expectations. In college, it is downright difficult, if not impossible, to train complex cognitive skills in a semester; yet look what most problem solving courses in the corporate training world are -- a couple of hours, eight hours top. And then we expect the learners to transfer what they have learned in the classroom to the job. Yet, all they have are a very few simple if/then statements to take back to the job. Such training is totally inadequate. </p><p style="text-align: justify;"> Part of the problem is that we too often view the training process as <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/history_isd/odiorne.html">"cybernetic"</a> -- a communication theory that treats organisms and organizations as being very much alike in that both display "behavior." And we expect this cybernetic training process to "behave" in such a way that it steers us to a desired destination by treating "ways of behaving." Now this would not be too bad except for one minor point...we look for no feedback. Thus we steer this training ship of ours towards a destination, yet on the way we take no compass or sextant readings. We simple do not where we are at any point during our trip, yet we expect this cybernetic organization of ours to get us to where we are going. </p><p style="text-align: justify;">And the reason we blindly steer this ship of ours is that our expectation is not a "result" that will fix or improve a process, but rather a "completion" that tells us we have finished a specific cycle of training. Thus what we should be doing is looking for results and taking measurements along the way to ensure we are indeed getting the result or impact that we desire; rather than simply performing training for the sake of doing it. </p><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Notes</h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <a name="schemata"><b>Schemata (Schema)</b></a>: A mental model of a person, object or situation. Schema include cognitive maps (mental representations of familiar parts of one's world), images, concept schema (categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties), event scripts (schema about familiar sequences of events or activities) and mental models (clusters of relationships between objects or processes). </div><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Reference</h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> Anderson , J. R. (1976). <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0470151870/bigdogsbowlofbis/"><i>Language, memory, and thought.</i></a> Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. </div><p style="text-align: justify;"> Merrienboer, Jeroen (1997). <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0877782989/bigdogsbowlofbis/" target="_blank"><i>Training Complex Cognitive Skills: A Four-Component Instructional Design Model for Technical Training</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. </p><p style="text-align: justify;"> Newell, A. (1972). <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0134454030/bigdogsbowlofbis/"><i>Human Problem Solving</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. </p>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-25114304886562829142008-09-06T09:35:00.000-07:002008-09-06T10:21:37.689-07:00Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy<h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="The Three Types"></a></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="The Three Types"></a></span></h2><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Add & Edited by:</h2>Arip Nurahman<br />Indonesia University Of Education<br /><br /><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="The Three Types">The Three Types</a> of Learning</span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >There is more than one type of <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/learning/learning.html">learning</a>. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities: </span></p><ul style="text-align: justify;" type="disc"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" > <li><b>Cognitive</b>: mental skills (<i>Knowledge</i>) </li><li><b>Affective</b>: growth in feelings or emotional areas (<i>Attitude</i>) </li><li><b>Psychomotor</b>: manual or physical skills (<i>Skills</i>) </li></span></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the training process." That is, after the training session, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama department). </span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today. </span></p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="cognitive">Cognitive</a> <sup><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html#one">(1)</a></sup></span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place. </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> <table style="text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; color: rgb(255, 255, 204);" bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bg="" border="2" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="500"> <tbody><tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"> <h3 align="center"><span style="font-size:100%;">Category</span></h3> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><h3 style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" align="center"><span style="font-size:100%;">Example and Key Words</span></h3> <span style="font-size:100%;"> </span></td> </tr> <tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> <b>Knowledge</b>: Recall data or information.</span></td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states. </span></p></td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><dl style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><dt><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Comprehension</b>: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words. </span></dt></dl> </td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in oneís own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives <b>Examples</b>, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Application</b>: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.</span></p></td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Use a manual to calculate an employeeís vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. </span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Analysis</b>: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. </span></p></td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Synthesis</b>: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.</span></p> </td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr><td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="37%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Evaluation</b>: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.</span></p></td> <td style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" valign="top" width="63%"><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Examples</b>: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.</span></p> <p><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>Key Words</b>: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.</span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="affective">Affective</a> <sup><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html#two">(2)</a></sup></span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" > <table bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bgcolor="#ffffcc" border="2" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="500"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top" width="37%"> <h3 align="center">Category</h3> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <h3 align="center">Example and Key Words</h3> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Receiving Phenomena</b>: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Responding to Phenomena</b>: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). </p> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Valuing</b>: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learnerís overt behavior and are often identifiable. </p> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. </p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Organization</b>: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. </p> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for oneís behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. </p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Internalizing values</b> (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. </p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.</p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span></p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="psychomotor">Psychomotor</a> <sup><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html#three">(3)</a></sup></span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" > <table bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bgcolor="#ffffcc" border="2" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="500"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top" width="37%"> <h3 align="center">Category</h3> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <h3 align="center">Example and Key Words</h3> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Perception</b>: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.</p> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Set</b>: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a personís response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <dl><dt><b>Examples</b>: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize oneís abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the Affective domain. </dt></dl> <p><b>Key Words</b>: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Guided Response</b>: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. </p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Mechanism</b>: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. </p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Complex Overt Response</b>: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.</p> </td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. </p><p> NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.</p></td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Adaptation</b>: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.</p> </td> </tr> <tr><td valign="top" width="37%"> <p><b>Origination</b>: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.</p></td> <td valign="top" width="63%"> <p><b>Examples</b>: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine.</p> <p><b>Key Words</b>: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.</p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span></p><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >Other Psychomotor Domains</span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" >As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions: </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> </p><ul style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><span style="color: rgb(204, 51, 102);"><b>Dave's:</b></span><sup><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html#four">(4)</a></sup> <li><b>Imitation:</b> Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art. </li><li><b>Manipulation:</b> Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it. </li><li><b>Precision:</b> Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right." </li><li><b>Articulation:</b> Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc. </li><li><b>Naturalization:</b> Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. <b>Examples</b>: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc. </li></span></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><span style="color: rgb(204, 51, 102);"><b>Harrow's:</b></span><sup><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html#five">(5)</a></sup> <li><b>Reflex movements</b> - Reactions that are not learned. </li><li><b>Fundamental movements</b> - Basic movements such as walking, or grasping. </li><li><b>Perception</b> - Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination. </li><li><b>Physical abilities</b> - Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility. </li><li><b>Skilled movements</b> - Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting. </li><li><b>No discursive communication</b> - Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions. </li></span></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="Reference">Reference</a></span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="one"> 1. Bloom B. S. (1956). <i>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain.</i> New York: David McKay Co Inc.</a> </span></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="two"> 2.Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). <i>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain.</i> New York: David McKay Co., Inc.</a> </span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="three"> 3. Simpson E. J. (1972). <i>The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain.</i> Washington, DC: Gryphon House.</a> </span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="four"> 4. Dave, R. H. (1975). <i>Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives.</i> (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational Innovators Press.</a> </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="five"> 5. Harrow, Anita (1972) <i>A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: a guide for developing behavioral objectives.</i> New York: David McKay.<br /><br /></a></span><p>The <b>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives</b>, often called <b>Bloom's Taxonomy</b>, is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">classification</a> of the different objectives and skills that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">educators</a> set for students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956" title="1956">1956</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bloom" title="Benjamin Bloom">Benjamin Bloom</a>, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychologist</a> at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three "domains:" Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive. Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels (Orlich, et al. 2004). A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> form of education.</p> Most references to the Bloom's Taxonomy only notice the Cognitive domain. There is also a so far less referred, revised version of the Taxonomy, published in 2001 under the name of "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and assessing", eds. Anderson, Lorin W., Krathwohl, David R., Airasian, Peter W., Cruikshank, Kathleen A., Mayer, Richard E., Pintrich, Paul R., Raths, James and Wittrock, Merlin C<br /><br /><div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> <span class="toctoggle"><br /></span></div> <ul><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#Affective"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Affective</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#Psychomotor"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Psychomotor</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#Cognitive"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Cognitive</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li><li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li></ul> <script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script> <p><a name="Affective" id="Affective"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Affective</span></h2> <p>Skills in the <b>affective domain</b> describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.</p> <p>There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:</p> <dl><dt>Receiving</dt><dd>The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Responding</dt><dd>The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus, the student also reacts in some way.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Valuing</dt><dd>The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Organizing</dt><dd>The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and accommodate them within his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Characterizing</dt><dd>The student has held a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic.</dd></dl> <p><a name="Psychomotor" id="Psychomotor"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Psychomotor</span></h2> <p>Skills in the <b>psychomotor domain</b> describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and/or development in behavior and/or skills.</p> <p>Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup>.</p> <p><a name="Cognitive" id="Cognitive"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Cognitive</span><br /></h2><p>Skills in the <b>cognitive domain</b> revolve around knowledge, comprehension, and "thinking through" a particular topic. Traditional education tends to emphasize the skills in this domain, particularly the lower-order objectives.</p> <p>There are six levels in the taxonomy, moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:</p> <dl><dt>Knowledge</dt><dd>Exhibit memory of previously-learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers</dd></dl> <dl><dd> <ul><li>Knowledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts</li><li>Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology</li><li>Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field - principles and generalizations, theories and structures</li></ul> </dd></dl> <p>Questions like: What is...?</p> <dl><dt>Comprehension</dt><dd>Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas</dd></dl> <dl><dd> <ul><li>Translation</li><li>Interpretation</li><li>Extrapolation</li></ul> </dd></dl> <p>Questions like: How would you compare and contrast...?</p> <dl><dt>Application</dt><dd>Using new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way</dd></dl> <p>Questions like: Can you organize _______ to show...?</p> <dl><dt>Analysis</dt><dd>Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find evidence to support generalizations</dd></dl> <dl><dd> <ul><li>Analysis of elements</li><li>Analysis of relationships</li><li>Analysis of organizational principles</li></ul> </dd></dl> <p>Questions like: How would you classify...?</p> <dl><dt>Synthesis</dt><dd>Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions</dd></dl> <dl><dd> <ul><li>Production of a unique communication</li><li>Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations</li><li>Derivation of a set of abstract relations</li></ul> </dd></dl> <p>Questions like: Can you predict an outcome?</p> <dl><dt>Evaluation</dt><dd>Present and defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria</dd></dl> <dl><dd> <ul><li>Judgments in terms of internal evidence</li><li>Judgments in terms of external criteria</li></ul> </dd></dl> <p>Questions like: Do you agree with.....?</p> <p>Some critiques of Bloom's Taxonomy('s cognitive domain) admit the existence of these six categories, but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link (Paul, R. (1993). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (3rd ed.). Rohnert Park, California: Sonoma State University Press.). Also the revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy has moved Synthesis in higher order than Evaluation. Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to Application before introducing Concepts. This thinking would seem to relate to the method of Problem Based Learning.</p> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_order_thinking_skills" title="Higher order thinking skills">Higher order thinking skills</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastery_learning" title="Mastery learning">Mastery learning</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">Physical education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Krathwohl" title="David Krathwohl">David Krathwohl</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_and_crystallized_intelligence" title="Fluid and crystallized intelligence">Fluid and crystallized intelligence</a></li></ul> <p><a name="References" id="References"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2> <ul><li><i>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals</i>; pp. 201-207; B. S. Bloom (Ed.) Susan Fauer Company, Inc. 1956.</li><li><i>A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing — A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives</i>; Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Peter W. Airasian, Kathleen A. Cruikshank, Richard E. Mayer, Paul R. Pintrich, James Raths and Merlin C. Wittrock (Eds.) Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2001</li></ul> <div class="references-small"> <ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_Taxonomy#cite_ref-0" title="">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7Edonclark/hrd/bloom.html" class="external text" title="http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html" rel="nofollow">Bloom's Taxonomy</a></li></ol> </div> <!-- NewPP limit report Preprocessor node count: 226/1000000 Post-expand include size: 3420/2048000 bytes Template argument size: 1102/2048000 bytes Expensive parser function count: 2/500 --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:261128-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20080904055557 --> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives</a>"</div> <div id="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <span dir="ltr"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Educational_technology" title="Category:Educational technology">Educational technology</a></span> | <span dir="ltr"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Educational_psychology" title="Category:Educational psychology">Educational psychology</a></span> | <span dir="ltr"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Classification_systems" title="Category:Classification systems">Classification systems</a><br /><br /><br /></span></div><a name="five"></a><span arial="" style=";font-family:lucida grande;font-size:100%;" ><a name="five"></a></span></div>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-5709421057451549282008-09-06T09:22:00.000-07:002008-09-06T09:32:10.631-07:00Affective<h1 align="center"><span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;">What Can I Do To Increase the Effectiveness of the Learning Experience?</span></span></h1><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="center"><span style="font-size:130%;">Outline</span></p> <span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > </span><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;">Page 1 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective.html#Affective">Affective Behaviors</a></span></p> <span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > </span><blockquote style="font-family: georgia;"> <p align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective.html#Why">Why Is Safety so Hard to Train?</a></span></p> <p align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective.html#One">One Solution</a></span></p> <p align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective.html#Changing">Changing Affective Behaviors is Not Easy</a></span> </p></blockquote> <span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > </span><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;">Page 2 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective2.html">Knowledge Sharing</a> by<br /> <a href="http://www.easytraining.com/">Claire Belilos</a></span> </p><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="left"><span style="font-size:130%;">Page 3 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective3.html">The Mayor of Bogota</a></span> </p><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="left"> <span style="font-size:130%;">Page 4 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/confidence.html">Self Confidence</a></span> </p><p style="font-family: georgia;" align="left"> <span style="font-size:130%;">Page 5 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/development/self.html">Self</a></span> </p><span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > Page 6 <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/changing.html">Changing Behaviors</a><br /><br /></span><h2><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;"><a name="Affective">Affective</a> Behaviors<!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>Getting someone to change their <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/bloom.html"> affective</a> behavior is one of the hardest tasks to accomplish. That is because the training often threatens the learners' self-image. So, it becomes important to affirm the learner's core values, such as moral, social, religious, family, political, etc. Learners who attend training in which their beliefs or values are supported are much more likely to "let down their guard" and accept the learning points.</p> <p align="center"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/emptyhead.gif" alt="Empty Head" border="3" width="159" height="173" /></p> <p>If you confront the learners with learning points that suggests they may have acted in a foolish or in a dangerous manner, they become resistant to change. No one wants to be told that they did something stupid. Thus, it is important to remind them of their "goodness" in order to make the various learning points easier to digest. The learning will not be so threatening because thinking about an important value will have affirmed each learner’s image of himself or herself as a smart and capable person. This also points out the invalid concept of a learner as an empty vessel. You have to "draw" them into the learning, not simply "pour" the learning into them.</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <h2><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;"><a name="Why">Why</a> is safety so hard to train? <!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p><span style="font-size:85%;">(NOTE: The following example uses safety, but this method works with a wide variety of affective behaviors.</span></p> <p> Unlike a lot of other tasks, it is often easier to do something the unsafe way, rather than the safe way. For example, if I run out of charcoal lighter, it is much easier and quicker to use the can of gasoline in the garage than drive two miles to the nearest store; it is much quicker to cross in the middle of the street than walk to the corner-crosswalk; it is faster and easier to jump on a piece of equipment and start operating than to perform some checks beforehand.</p> <p>Getting someone to act safely requires that they not only gain the required knowledge and skills, but that they also change their attitude (affective domain). Otherwise, they will know how to act, but will not do so as their self-systems kick in and convince them to do it the fast and easy way.</p> <p>We all perform calculated risks (which in reality are unsafe acts to various degrees), e.g., I might never use gasoline to start a barbecue (unless I was starving and had no means to get fluid), but I might cross the street outside of the crosswalk if it was not busy.</p> <p>This is why organizations have safety class after safety class - they never getting around to changing the attitudes of the learners. They hope that drilling the same old knowledge and skills into the learners with various methods will eventually pay off and produce safe learners. However safety requires that we know the rules (knowledge), know how to act (skills), and have a proper attitude for it (affective).</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <h2><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;"><a name="One">One</a> Solution<!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>A learning program might go something like this (I am keeping this simple so that you can add, remove, or adjust the steps for other behaviors):</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Have each learner explain three or four safety rules or principles that they value dearly and why. Also, have them record their selections on a flip chart.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">This helps to internalize the belief that they are "good" persons, which makes them more receptive to change. This is best done in small groups (mix the groups up throughout the various activities). <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p align="center"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/cheerleader.jpg" border="0" width="120" height="180" /></p> <p align="center"> Sort of like "cheerleading."</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Gather the groups back together and have them discuss their values or principles. Tape these values to the walls so that they may be used for further reminders.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Discuss the concept of the difficulty of getting people to act safely (e.g. it is often quicker and easier not to act in a safe manner).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Again, using small groups, have them discuss calculated risks (unsafe acts) that they have performed, e.g., not coming to a complete stop at a stop sign. Have them record the reasons on a flipchart.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Next, have them confront the inappropriate behaviors by asking why we take these risks when they might clash with our core values and principles. (Note: You can have them discuss a number of other things depending on your desired outcome - e.g. discuss if the reasons they listed for taking the "risks" are the same reasons other employees might use. If not, what might some of their reasons be?)<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Gather them back together and using their input, extract the central themes of their discussions.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Have them brainstorm some activities or solutions that they can use in their workplace to make it a safer place (this allows them to become part of the solution). For ideals on brainstorming activities, see <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7Edonclark/perform/brainstorm.html">Brainstorming</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h2><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;"><a name="Changing">Changing</a> Affective Behaviors Is Not Easy<!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>Note that changing affective behaviors is generally not a one shot activity. But, going to the core of the matter is better than repeating the same old skills and knowledge that they already understand. Building a wide variety of these "cheerleading" activities will give you the three required building blocks of learning difficult behaviors: </p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Gaining new <i>skills,</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">learning new <i>knowledge,</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><b>and</b> changing Affective behaviors.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Page 2 - <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective2.html">Knowledge Sharing<br /> </a>Page 3 - <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/affective3.html">The Mayor of Bogota<br /> </a>Page 4 - <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/confidence.html">Self Confidence</a><br /> Page 5 - <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/development/self.html">Self<br /> </a>Page 6 - <a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/changing.html">Changing Behaviors</a><!--mstheme--></span> </p> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><br /></span><h1 style="text-align: center;">Yerkes-Dodson Law: Arousal and Learning</h1><br /><h2>Introduction</h2> Arousal is a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other concepts such as anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation. The arousal level can be thought of as how much capacity you have available to work with. One finding with respect to arousal is the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) which predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance:<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/ydlaw.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px;" src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/history/ydlaw.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><p> There has been quite a bit of research indicating the correlation suggested by Yerkes and Dodson exists (Broadhurst, 1957; Duffy, 1957; Anderson, 2000), but a cause of the correlation has not yet been fully established (Anderson, Revelle, & Lynch, 1989). Although the Yerkes-Dodson law is quite old, it has held up in time through numerous studies. Just because something is old, does not make it invalid. In fact, since it has held up for so long, is the reason it has gone from theory to law. </p><p>A certain amount of arousal can be a motivator toward change (with change in this discussion being learning). But too much or too little will certainly work against the learner. You want some mid-level of arousal to provide the motivation to change (learn). Too little arousal has an inert affect on the learner, while too much has a hyper affect. Also, there are optimal levels of arousal for each task to be learned. The optimal level of arousal is: </p><ul><li>lower for more difficult or intellectually (cognitive) tasks </li><li>higher for tasks requiring endurance and persistence </li></ul>For example, the arousal level in a quality team training session must be quite high as it requires persistence and it is basically a low cognitive task. On the other side of the coin is an advanced algebra class. It is a extremely high on the cognitive level, so arousal must be kept low as you need the learners' full attention on the subject matter -- too much arousal and you overload them. <p>You might think of arousal and cognitive levels as fluid in a glass. If you put too much of any ingredient in the glass, it overflows. On the other hand, if you put too little in, you are not using the glass to its fullest capabilities. And if you put the wrong ingredients in, but the glass is full, then it does not taste good. </p><p> </p><h2>Recent Research and Findings</h2>A University of Chicago researcher reported performing tests on the influence that a stress-related hormone has on learning in ground squirrels and that it could have an impact on understanding how it influences human learning. Jill Mateo (2007), Assistant Professor in Comparative Human Development, said that modest levels of cortisol are apparently linked to their survival. The inverted U, similar to Yerkes-Dodson's law, is the shape data forms on a chart. Animals with low levels of cortisol are at the left of the inverted U, and those with high levels are at the right, while those with modest levels and higher learning are in the middle. You can find more information on this story at <a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080314085041.htm" target="_blank">Science Daily</a>. <h2>What does this mean for the Learning Environment?</h2> Environmental arousal factors such as the noise level, temperature, comfort, must be controlled. This allows you to put more arousal factors that are beneficial to learning without going into arousal overload. A colleague of mine once had to give some training at a meat packing company. The only place they had for him to train was in a cold storage room. He managed to get through the training by leaving out most of the arousal factors that he normally uses. The cold room had already overloaded the learners' peak arousal level (stress) and he did not want to arouse them anymore. <p>When training tasks that are high on the cognitive scale or are highly complex, use less motivators and keep the stress level low. The brain tends to shut certain aspects out when it has too many inputs coming in at once, and the one input that you do not want it to shut out is what your learners need to learn. Some trainers call this brain-overload, tunnel vision, or brain-cramps. This does not mean you cannot make the material interesting, just keep their arousal on an even keel. You want them to focus on the learning activities, not inputting more information into their brains with motivational speeches and stressors. </p><p>Outdoor or physical team training activities require more arousal techniques. This is where the trainer has to become more of a college football type coach and less of a trainer. The effort to reach the peak arousal point where the most change (learning) takes place is higher on this scale than cognitive learning. To reach that peak arousal point you need to provide more stress and motivation. This is why such team training programs as the U. S. Armed Forces Basic Training creates great teams -- they reach the arousal point that is on the high-end for this type of learning. </p><p>Tests can be great motivators for getting students to learn. . . it shows they mastered the task, they do not like to fail, they want that certificate, its a challenge, etc. But test taking anxiety can push some learners' arousal level over the peak arousal point. You can reduce stress levels by supplying non-graded quizzes and performance activities that provide reassurance and feedback to the learners. </p><p>When the optimum arousal point goes too low then use activities that get the learners interacting with each other or moving. Provide inspirational speeches, challenging games, and puzzles. Give a pop quiz. </p><p>When the optimum arousal point goes too high then take the cognitive focus off the goal (eliminate "what if" statements) and place it on the process. Take a break, watch a video, stretch. Play a fun, but interesting game. </p><p>Provide the who, what, when, where, why, and how questions about the learning to take place as it helps to eliminate fears. . . you and the learning environment need to control the stress factors, not the unknowns. </p><h2>Anxiety and Arousal</h2>Many trainers believe that all anxiety must be removed from the training environment. But, again, there is an optimal level. The Optimal Arousal Level can be thought of as the Optimal Motivational Level. And one of the things that motivate people is anxiety. But, many people seem to have a negative connotation to the word "anxiety" as they associate it with neurotic inferences. It might help to picture anxiety in three terms as Freud did: <ul><li>Reality anxiety: the fear of a real danger in the external world that alerts the ego to danger. NOTE: This is the type of anxiety needed in some types of training, while the next two need to be eliminated.</li><li>Neurotic anxiety: the fear that one's inner impulses cannot be controlled (id).</li><li>Moral anxiety: the fear of the retributions of one's own conscience (superego).</li></ul> Mild anxiety motivates us in the real world. Without it, bills would not get paid on time, term papers would not get written, people would not get medical check-ups, drivers would race, people would steal, etc. In the real world, anxiety is a major motivational force that drives and changes our behavior.<br /><br /><p align="center"> </p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/worried.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px;" src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/worried.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><b>Of course, too much anxiety impedes the learning process</b></span></div> <p> </p> When you take anxiety out of the training environment, you leave the learner without a major motivator. There is an old learning theory (now discredited) that states "the learner is an empty vessel in which the instructor pours knowledge." And unintentionally, this is how many training environments now operate. All the learners have to do is show up for the training session and they pass as the training environment has been completely sanitized of all emotions. The trainers believe that their entertaining and interesting instruction is going to be "poured" into the learners. <p>Excellent training places the responsibility of learning on both the trainer and the learner -- the trainer provides the learning tools, while the learners' responsibility is to use these tools. And by creating an anxious-free environment, you take away one of the major motivational tools of the learner. </p><p>Perhaps anxiety's most effective use in training would be in a safety class. Pilots go through simulators not only for the psychomotor practice and to increase their knowledge, but also because some of the simulations are so realistic that they get anxiety attacks that tell them "danger, do something now!" not "something is going wrong, lets wait and see what happens." These types of anxiety attacks are our friend, they tell us to take immediate action by releasing adrenaline into the bloodstream, stimulating the heart, raising the metabolic rate, and increasing the blood glucose concentration. </p><p>Safety is not only having the knowledge to do things the correct way, the skills to perform correctly, but also the ATTITUDE to REACT to unsafe conditions. I'm sure some are going to jump on the band-wagon and say its unethical for trainers to change attitudes, or you change behaviors not attitudes, but that is a training cop-out. I work in a plant with forklifts, conveyors, machinery, and many other potential hazards. When I leave work I want to do so via my car, not in a hearse on the way to the county morgue or in an ambulance with an amputated leg because the people who work with me "displayed safe behaviors" but did not have the attitude to react to something going wrong or sense (become anxious) when they were about to do something dangerous. Failing to incorporate affective (attitude) domain training into a safety classes means that you, the trainer, failed at your task. </p><h2>The Learning Zone</h2>How do you know when you have reached the optimum arousal point for your learners? In sports, a player who is playing great is at the optimum arousal point and is said to be "in the zone." Achieving the optimum arousal level in a training environment puts students in the <i> Learning Zone</i>: <ul><li>They become totally involved in the learning process by centering in on the task to be learned as non-learning stressors have been eliminated.</li><li>They loose self-consciousness of the fear they might fail and gain a desire to succeed as their emotions are now tied to the learning environment. Failing becomes challenges because they become more adaptive to the learning environment and they believe the learning environment will "fine tune" itself to meet their needs.</li><li>They have clear visions of what the task to be learned can provide as they know how it will help them in their future endeavors.</li><li>They have a sense of being in control of their learning environment as they are ripe for learning (they are NOT just going through the motions).</li><li>They become more intrinsically motivated (self-directed) because they want to learn the task (their focus is on the task rather than reward and punishment).</li></ul> In closing, each task has an optimal level of arousal and the level of arousal includes anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation. The trainer's job is to help each learner reach their optimal level of arousal so that their focus is totally on the task to be learned. <h2>References</h2> Anderson, J.R. (2000). <i>Cognitive psychology and its implications</i>. 5th Ed. New York: Worth. <p>Anderson, K. J., Revelle, W., & Lynch, M. J. (1989). Caffeine, impulsivity, and memory scanning: A comparison of two explanations for the Yerkes-Dodson Effect. <i>Motivation and Emotion</i>, 13, 1-20. </p><p> Broadhurst, P. L. (1957). <i>Emotional Psychology</i>, 54, 345352. </p><p> Duffy, E. (1957). The psychological significance of the concept of "arousal" or "activation." <i>Psychological Review</i>, 64, 265275. </p><p> Mateo, J. M. (2007). Inverted-U shape relationship between cortisol and learning in ground squirrels. <i>Journal Neurobiology of Learning and Memory (online)</i>. Neurobiol Learn Mem. Dec 27. </p><p> Yerkes, R.M. & Dodson, J.D. (1908). The Relationship of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit Formation. <i>Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology.</i>, 18, 459-482. </p>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-27523140935181892192008-09-06T08:08:00.000-07:002008-09-06T09:19:11.584-07:00Learning<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia16EFDLnEevmRQ_MFSlKIV3VofcB2-OWlpmm6cQXERMF2DVXJO_no4KpfYY7laHMwFQnlqDLFwOGxpvCFEsJB6xNUZYaj4zzWNwy3M_vQUlkR6jA4NR_sPJIUUXSlb97gTQkTAhrwAf7z/s1600-h/arip+nurahman+learner_framework2.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia16EFDLnEevmRQ_MFSlKIV3VofcB2-OWlpmm6cQXERMF2DVXJO_no4KpfYY7laHMwFQnlqDLFwOGxpvCFEsJB6xNUZYaj4zzWNwy3M_vQUlkR6jA4NR_sPJIUUXSlb97gTQkTAhrwAf7z/s400/arip+nurahman+learner_framework2.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5242928100586962914" border="0" /></a><br /><p>In the fields of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_development" title="Personal development" class="mw-redirect">personal development</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <b>Learning</b> is one of the most important <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental" title="Mental">mental</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_%28engineering%29" title="Function (engineering)">function</a> of humans, animals and artificial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive</a> systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> supported activities such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_%28activity%29" title="Play (activity)">play</a>, seen only in relatively intelligent animals<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> and humans. Therefore, in general, a learning can be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscious" title="Conscious" class="mw-redirect">conscious</a> and not conscious.</p> <p>For example, for small children, non-conscious learning processes are as natural as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a>. In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal" title="Prenatal" class="mw-redirect">prenatally</a>, in which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> has been observed as early as 32 weeks into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a>, indicating that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Developmental_Psychologydevelopment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Developmental Psychologydevelopment (page does not exist)">Developmental Psychologydevelopment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p> <p>From the social perspective, learning is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal" title="Goal">goal</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching" title="Teaching" class="mw-redirect">teaching</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>.</p> <p>Conscious learning is a capacity requested by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student" title="Student">students</a>, therefore is usually <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal-oriented" title="Goal-oriented">goal-oriented</a> and requires a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>.</p> <p>Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Machine learning</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Although learning is often thought of as a property associated with living things, computers are also able to modify their own behaviors as a result of experiences. Known as <i>machine learning</i>, this is a broad subfield of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> concerned with the design and development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a> and techniques that allow computers to "learn". At a general level, there are two types of learning: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive" title="Deductive" class="mw-redirect">deductive</a>. Inductive machine learning methods extract rules and patterns out of massive data sets.</p> <p>The major focus of machine learning research is to extract information from data automatically, by computational and statistical methods. Hence, machine learning is closely related to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> but also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a>.</p> <p>Machine learning has a wide spectrum of applications including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pattern_recognition" title="Syntactic pattern recognition">syntactic pattern recognition</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_engines" title="Search engines" class="mw-redirect">search engines</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">medical diagnosis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">cheminformatics</a>, detecting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraud" title="Credit card fraud">credit card fraud</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock market</a> analysis, classifying <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequence" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequences</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">speech</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting_recognition" title="Handwriting recognition">handwriting recognition</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_recognition" title="Object recognition">object recognition</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_game" title="Strategy game">game playing</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">robot locomotion</a>.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><a name="See_also" id="See_also"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_Psychology" title="Developmental Psychology" class="mw-redirect">Developmental Psychology</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education" title="History of education">History of education</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoning" title="Reasoning">Reasoning</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_learning" title="Sequence learning">Sequence learning</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_learning" title="Sleep and learning">Sleep and learning</a></li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_skills" title="Study skills">Study skills</a></li></ul> <p><a name="References" id="References"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2> <div class="references-small"> <ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_ref-0" title="">^</a></b> <a href="http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/1/junglegyms.cfm" class="external text" title="http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/1/junglegyms.cfm" rel="nofollow">Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play</a></li><li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_ref-1" title="">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/behavior.php" class="external text" title="http://www.thecephalopodpage.org/behavior.php" rel="nofollow">What behavior can we expect of octopuses?</a></li><li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_ref-2" title="">^</a></b> Sandman, Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. (1997). Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child Development, 68, 1031-1040.</li><li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_ref-3" title="">^</a></b> Fadul, J. "<a href="http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1092" class="external text" title="http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1092" rel="nofollow">Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning Principles</a>" <i>International Journal of Learning</i>. Volume 13 (2006) Issue 6. pp. 139-152.</li><li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning#cite_ref-4" title="">^</a></b> deFigueiredo, R.J.P. <a href="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=142118" class="external text" title="http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=142118" rel="nofollow">Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in neural networks</a>, 1990</li></ol> </div> <ul><li><cite class="book" style="font-style: normal;">Mayer, R. E. (2001). <i>Multimedia learning</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521787491" class="internal">ISBN 0-52178-749-1</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multimedia+learning&rft.au=Mayer%2C+R.+E.&rft.date=2001&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.place=New+York"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li><li>Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.</li><li>Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140225706" class="internal">ISBN 0140225706</a></li></ul><br /><h2><span class="mw-headline">External links</span></h2><ul><li><a href="http://www.problemistics.org/tools/subjects/education.learning.html" class="external text" title="http://www.problemistics.org/tools/subjects/education.learning.html" rel="nofollow">Education & Learning</a> List of selected links</li><li><a href="http://www.iguides.org/how-to-guides/how-to-be-a-better-learner.html" class="external text" title="http://www.iguides.org/how-to-guides/how-to-be-a-better-learner.html" rel="nofollow">How to be a Better Learner</a></li><li><a href="http://www.pedagogy.ir/" class="external text" title="http://www.pedagogy.ir" rel="nofollow">Pedagogy Iran</a></li></ul><br /><h1 style="text-align: center;">Absorbing</h1><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/learning/adir.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px;" src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/learning/adir.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><p> Reading, seeing, listening are good methods for absorbing information. However, this information does not instantly become knowledge once we have absorbed it for we have simply copied the information from one source, such as a book, to another source, our brain. To help make it part of one's knowledge base, one needs to take it through a "learning cycle" (not necessarily in order): </p><ul type="disc"><li>observing and reflecting </li><li>forming concepts (models, frameworks, generalizations) </li><li>testing in new situations </li><li>gaining experience </li></ul>For example, I once watched a program on the human face. So while "absorbing" was the main learning vehicle, there was still a cycle to it: -<ul type="disc"><li>Watching the program and thinking about it (observing and reflecting). </li><li>Fitting it in with previous experience and knowledge - (forming concepts). </li><li>Writing about it (testing in new situations): <a href="http://groups.yahoo.com/group/trdev/message/5058" target="_blank">http://groups.yahoo.com/group/trdev/message/5058</a> </li><li>Besides the posting, I have not really used the new information, so my knowledge base lacks real depth (gaining experience). </li></ul> <h2>References</h2> Wertenbroch, A.; Nabeth, T. (2000). <i>Advanced Learning Approaches & Technologies: The CALT Perspective</i>. <a href="http://www.insead.fr/CALT/Publication/CALTReport/calt-perspective.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.insead.fr/CALT/Publication/CALTReport/calt-perspective.pdf</a><br /><br /><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><br /><br /></b></span></span><h1 align="center"><span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;">Training and Active Learning</span></span></h1><br /><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b><br />People by nature desire to know - Aristotle</b></span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" ><b>Learning Outline</b> <p><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#background">Involving Learners with the Training Process</a></p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table style="font-family: georgia;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#seven">The Seven Principles for Good Practice</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#centered">Learner-Centered Principles for Training</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#andragogy">Andragogy </a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#process">Process of Learning</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > <p><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#practical">Putting the Learning Process Into Use</a></p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table style="font-family: georgia;" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#climate"> A Climate for Learning</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#structure">Mutual Planning</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#needs"> Learners' Needs</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#objective"> Formulation of Objectives</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#design"> Designs for Learning</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#carrying"> Carrying out the Design</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><span style="font-size:130%;"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></span></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#evaluate">Mutual Evaluation</a><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" > <p><a href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/learning/active.html#reference">References</a></p></span><h1 align="center"><span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /></span></span></h1><span style="font-family: georgia;font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;font-size:130%;" ></span><h2><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;">Involving Learners with the Training Process<!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p><b>Effective teachers demonstrate more implementation of learner-centered domains of practice than less effective teachers </b>(Fasko D. & Grubb D. J. & McCombs J. & McCombs B. L.)</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="seven"></a>The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>A group of scholars of higher education were asked to derive from their knowledge of the past 50 years of research a set of principles that could be applied to improve learning. The <i>Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education </i>was then formulated from their conclusions (Chickering & Gamson 1997):</p> <ol><li>Encourage contacts between students and faculty.</li><li>Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.</li><li>Use active learning techniques.</li><li>Give prompt feedback.</li><li>Emphasize time on task.</li><li>Communicate high expectations.</li><li>Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.</li></ol> <!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="centered"></a>Learner-Centered Principles for Training<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>A set of <i>Learner-Centered Principles for Training</i> (Ellis, Wagner, & Longmire, 1999) were created to help with the learning process. They are based on the work of Barbara McCombs (McCombs, 1992):</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Learners discover and construct meaning from information and experience based on their unique perceptions, thoughts and feelings.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> More information doesn't necessarily mean more learning. Learners seek to create meaningful uses of knowledge regardless of the quantity and quality information presented.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners link new knowledge to existing information in ways that make sense to the learner. The remembering of new knowledge is facilitated when it can be tied to a learner's current knowledge.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Personality influences learning. Learners have varying degrees of self-confidence and differ in the clarity of their personal goals and expectations for success and failure.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners want to learn. Individuals are naturally curious and enjoy learning, but personal insecurity and fear of failure often get in the way.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners like challenges. Learners are most creative when learning is challenging and meets their individual needs.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners are individuals. Not all learners are at the same stage of physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development. Learners also differ in their cultural backgrounds. Although the basic principles of learning apply to all learners regardless of these differences, trainers must take into account such differences between learners.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> The learning environment is important. Learners learn best in a friendly, socially interactive and diverse environment.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners like positive reinforcement. Learning environments that support the self-esteem and respect of the individual learner tend to be more successful.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Past Experience Matters. Personal beliefs and impressions from prior learning color learners' world views and their approach to learning.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="andragogy"></a>Andragogy <!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p> The Andragogic Learning Model recognizes several facets to learning <i> (</i>Knowles, M.S.):</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">They are problem centered rather than content centered.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The permit and encourage the active participation of the learner.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">They encourage the learner to introduce past experiences into the process in order to reexamine that experience in the light of new data.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The climate of learning must be collaborative (instructor-to-learner and learner-to-learner) as opposed to authority-oriented.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The learning environment (planning, conducting, evaluating) is a mutual activity between learner and instructor.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Evaluation leads to appraisal of needs and interests and therefore to to redesign and new learning activities.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Activities are experimental, not "transmittal and absorption."<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Thus, the primary function of the trainer is to become a guide to the process of learning, not a manager of content. The "learning guide" uses two-way communication to establish the objectives and methods of the learning process.<!--mstheme--></span> </p><h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="process"></a>Process of Learning<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The three models discussed above emphasize the importance involving the learners in the training and learning process. Such a model would look similar to this:<br /></span></p><p><br /></p><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/andragogy.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px;" src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/andragogy.gif" alt="" border="0" /></a></p><span style="font-family: georgia;font-size:130%;" ><br /></span><p align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><b>The Process of Learning Model (Laird D. 1985)</b> </span></p><p align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></p><div align="center"> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <!--mstheme--></span> <table bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bg border="2" cellpadding="6" width="69%" style="color:#99cccc;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> A learning organization is a place where people are continually discovering how they create their reality. And how they can change it. - Peter Senge<!--mstheme--></span></p></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></div> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Notice how The <i>Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, the </i>set of <i>Learner-Centered Principles for Training, </i>and the Andragogic Learning Model all tie into The Process of Learning Model: </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><b>A climate for learning</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learning does not occur in a vacuum (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners want to learn (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> The learning environment is important (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">They encourage the learner to introduce past experiences into the process in order to reexamine that experience in the light of new data <i> (Andragogic Learning Model)<br /> </i> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b>A structure for mutual planning</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encourages contacts between students and Faculty (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Personality influences learning (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners like challenges (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The learning environment (planning, conducting, evaluating) is a mutual activity between learner and instructor <i>(Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b> Learners' needs, interests, and values</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Respects diverse talents and ways of learning (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners link new knowledge to existing information in ways that make sense to the learner (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners are individuals (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">They are problem centered rather than content centered <i>(Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b>Formulation of objectives</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Communicates high expectations (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The climate of learning must be collaborative (instructor-to-learner and learner-to-learner) as opposed to authority-oriented <i>(Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b> Designs for learning</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Uses active learning techniques (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Past Experience Matters (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Activities are experimental, not "transmittal and absorption" <i> (Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b> Carrying out the design</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Emphasizes time on task (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> More information doesn't necessarily mean more learning (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The permit and encourage the active participation of the learner <i>(Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <b> Mutual evaluation, leading to reappraisal and revision of the learning objectives</b> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Gives prompt feedback (<i>Seven Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> Learners like positive reinforcement (<i>Learner-Centered Principles)</i><!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Evaluation leads to appraisal of needs and interests and therefore to to redesign and new learning activities <i>(Andragogic Learning Model)</i><br /> <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">This process of learner involvement differs quite differently from conventional instruction that is based on a hierarchical model in which those who know teach those who do not know. </span></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></p><div align="center"> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <!--mstheme--></span> <table bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bg border="2" cellpadding="6" width="53%" style="color:#99cccc;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Most of us only know how to be taught, we haven't learned how to learn. - Malcom Knowles<!--mstheme--></span></p></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></div> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> This learning involvement is not only a new experience for many trainers, it is also a new experience for most learners. Since most learners will never have encountered this type of learning or might have had a prior negative experiences, special attention needs to be paid. For example, one study found that learners respond differently to a visiting instructor simply based on receiving information prior to the lecture that indicated if the instructor was a "cold" or a "warm" person (Kelley, 1952). While everyone experienced the same event in the same room at the same time (the lecture by the instructor), those who had been primed to expect a warm instructor participated more in the discussion and subsequently rated the instructor more positively than those who had expected a cold person. This finding suggests that individuals look for evidence to confirm their prior expectations. </span></p><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">This is known as <i>preframing</i>, which is the attitudes and beliefs that learners bring into a learning environment. Preframes come from other learners, supervisors, past experience, culture, etc. With regard to learner involvement, it is important to note that the learner's expectations and past history are likely to influence their reaction to the type of training being presented. Those that have had good experiences with training that allows them to become involved will have a more positive attitude than others with negative experiences.<!--mstheme--></span></p> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><br /><h2><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#996600;">Putting the Learning Process Into Use<!--mstheme--></span></h2> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="climate"></a>A Climate for Learning<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p><i> Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing one’s ideas and responding to others’ improves thinking and deepens understanding. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</p> <p>There are three general types of learning group: informal learning groups, formal learning groups, and study teams (Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991).</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Informal learning groups are "off the cuff" clustering of learners within a single class session, e.g. asking the learners to turn to a neighbor and spend two minutes discussing a question you have posed. These informal groups are formed to check on the learners' understanding of the material, to give them an opportunity to apply what they are learning, or to provide a change of pace. <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Formal learning groups are established to complete a specific task, such as perform a lab experiment, write a report, carry out a project, or prepare a position paper. These groups may complete their work in a single class session or over several weeks. The learners work together until the task is finished.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Study teams are long-term groups with stable membership whose primary responsibility is to provide members with support, encouragement, and assistance in completing course requirements and assignments. Study teams also inform their members about lectures and assignments when someone has missed a session. The larger the class and the more complex the subject matter, the more valuable study teams can be.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>Also, the process that these learning group uses falls into two different camps:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><b>Cooperative learning</b> involves the more conventional notion of cooperation, in that learners work in small groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the trainer who monitors the groups, making sure the learners are staying on task and are coming up with the correct answers (if there is a right or a best answer). <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><b>Collaborative learning</b> is a more radical departure. It involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer. Monitoring the groups or correcting "wrong" impressions is not the role of the trainer since there is no authority on what the answer should be. <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p>Achieving a climate for learning can be accomplished by:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Breaking the class into small groups.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Keep people moving around from group to group/person to person.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Have activities and projects outside the classroom for group participation<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Developing teams.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Peer tutoring.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encouraging the learners to study together.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encouraging the learners to answer each other's questions instead of answering them yourself.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Have learners teach all or part of a lesson.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Be a model by asking questions and displaying good listening behaviors.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><a name="structure"></a>A Structure for Mutual Planning<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p><i>Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is a most important factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students’ intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and plans. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</p> <p>How do we know that? Mostly through large-scale corelational studies that conclude that students who have frequent contact with faculty members in and out of class are better satisfied with their educational experience, less likely to drop out, and perceive themselves to have learned more than students with less faculty contact (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). </p> <p>Some methods of mutual planning are:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Using a one-on-one approach to assessing the learner's requirements.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Personalize feedback on learner assignment - ask questions.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Open door policy.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">E-mail.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Stick around for after class conversations.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Mentoring.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Learn student's names.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Telephone access.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Frequent question & answer periods.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /> <a name="needs"></a>Learners' Needs, Interests, and Values<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p align="left"><i> Many roads lead to learning. Different students bring different talents and styles to college. Brilliant students in a seminar might be all thumbs in a lab or studio; students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need opportunities to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</p> <p align="left">The learner's needs can be met by:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Utilizing multimedia presentations that engage the learners (see, hear, and do or visual, auditory, kinesthetic/tactile).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Provide outside of the classroom activities (fieldtrips).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Give the learners a problem to solve that has multiple solutions. <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Change the media or delivery method frequently.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Identify a variety of learning opportunities for each module.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Explain theory from "practical approach" first, then add the structural approach.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /> <a name="objective"></a>Formulation of Objectives<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p align="left"><i> Expect more and you will get it. High expectations are important for everyone — for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</p> <p align="left">Due to some training requirements, certain learning objectives are often required. However, by focusing in on the learner's needs, instead of the training program's needs, you can get the learners involved with the achievement of the objectives:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Although a lot of learning is developmental and cannot be easily defined, work with each learner to set as complete a learning goal or objective as possible - what is the task to be learned, how will it be learned, how will you know it has been learned.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Assign realistic time values for each objective or learning point. If the total time is greater than the time you have, adjust accordingly (suggest self-study for the less critical learning points).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /> <a name="design"></a>Designs for Learning<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><i> Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</span></p> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><div align="center"> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <!--mstheme--></span> <table bordercolorlight="#CCCC99" bordercolordark="#666600" bg border="2" cellpadding="6" width="66%" style="color:#99cccc;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="100%"> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>The U.S. Department of Education and the National Institute of Education highlighted student involvement as one of three critical conditions for excellence in education, noting that:<br />"It is only the amount of time one can allocate for learning but the quality of effort within that time makes the difference...quality of effort refers to the extent to which learning is active rather than passive and colleges clearly can control the conditions of active learning by expecting students to be participants in, rather than spectators of, the learning process." (U.S. Department of Education 1984:18-19)</b></span><!--mstheme--></span></p></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span></div> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p align="left">"Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process. Researchers report that, regardless of the subject matter, students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional formats. Students who work in collaborative groups also appear more satisfied with their classes." (Cross, K.P cited these sources: Beckman, 1990; Chickering and Gamson, 1991; Collier, 1980; Cooper and Associates, 1990; Goodsell, Maher, Tinto, and Associates, 1992; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Kohn, 1986; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, and Smith, 1986; Slavin, 1980, 1983; Whitman, 1988)</p> <p align="left">To help achieve the design:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Set up problem solving activities in small groups and have each group discuss with class.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Get feedback on what activities help the students to learn.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encourage reflection (e.g. learning journals).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encourage learners to challenge (challenging is not flaming each other) ideas, the ideas of other students, or those presented in readings or other course materials.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Give learners concrete, real-life situations to analyze.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Encourage students to suggest new readings, projects, or course activities. The learning environment needs to be dynamic, not passive.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /> <a name="carrying"></a>Carrying out the Design<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <p align="left"><i> Time plus energy equals learning. Learning to use one’s time well is critical for students and professionals alike. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</p> <p align="left">Carrying out a plan or design, if often the hardest part, but the most enjoyable:</p> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Ensure that time spent on a task is real learning, not busy work.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Understand that there will be problems and changes along the way - plan for them.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Identify key concepts and how those will be taught. <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Active learning, not passive, should always be stressed.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Expect learners to participate (preframing).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Try to make the assignments interesting. The more interesting, the more involved the learners become.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Blend two types of knowledge: theoretical and everyday-lived. <!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Ask learners to comment on what they are doing. This helps to reinforce the learning experience.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--></tbody></table> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><!--mstheme--></span> <h3><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Times New Roman, Times New Roman, Times;color:#666600;"><br /> <a name="evaluate"></a> Mutual Evaluation, Leading to Reappraisal and Revision of the Learning Objectives<!--mstheme--></span></h3> <!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><i> Knowing what you know and don’t know focuses your learning. In getting started, students need help in assessing their existing knowledge and competence. Then, in classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive feedback on their performance. At various points during college, and at its end, students need chances to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how they might assess themselves. </i>(Chickering & Gamson 1997)</span></p> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Each learner differs in his or her need for achievement and how success and failure is perceived. These differences tend to affect individual motivation and persistence at a task. Individual motivation and persistence is affected by how one makes attributions for success and failure (Weiner, 1986). For example, one can attribute success to something about oneself or something about the environment. Learners who credit themselves for success, tend to have higher motivation and persist longer at tasks as they believe they have control over success or failure and thus greater persistence should lead to success. </span></p> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The goal of any training intervention should be to facilitate these types of attributions as they increase the desire to learn and make use of the training:</span></p> <span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> <!--mstheme--></span> <!--msthemelist--><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <!--msthemelist--><tbody><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Grade on a criteria based system by using a range of test questions (using a curve is ok).<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Provide constructive criticism when necessary, but provide praise/input as often as possible.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Provide plenty of question and answer sessions.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Use exams that give fast feedback.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Relate lessons to real life experiences.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Videos can be used to help the learner critique his or her own performance.<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">The trainer or other students can react to a writer’s draft using the “hidden text” option available in word processors: Turned on, the “hidden” comments spring up; turned off, the comments recede and the writer’s prized work is again free of “red ink.”<!--mstheme--></span><!--msthemelist--></p></td> </tr> <!--msthemelist--><tr> <!--msthemelist--><td valign="baseline" width="42"><img src="http://www.nwlink.com/%7EDonclark/hrd/atabbul1.gif" width="15" height="15" hspace="13" /></td> <td valign="top" width="100%"><!--mstheme--><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"> </span><p align="left"><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;">Celebrate in-class success!</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><span style="font-family:Arial, Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic. - Lewis Carroll<br /><br /></b></span></span>Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-48315882551626925452008-09-04T01:41:00.000-07:002008-09-06T08:07:21.159-07:00Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Fisika IndonesiaFisika Sekolah 1Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-349582833086529115.post-19184777513689281452008-08-28T00:31:00.000-07:002008-08-28T00:42:25.665-07:00MahasiswaMari kita berjuangHimpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesiahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01815848933142016871noreply@blogger.com0