Himpunan Mahasiswa Calon Guru Republik Indonesia: A Time Capsule of Training and Learning

A (Very) Brief History of Learning Theory

Matthew D. Laliberte

Worcester Polytechnic Institute

NERCOMP SIG 01.19.05

Learning as a Black Box

So what’s happening inside the box?

A Superficial Review

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Social Learning Theory

Social Constructivism

Multiple Intelligences

Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism

Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors

Focuses solely on observable behaviors

A biological basis for learning

Learning is context-independent

Classical & Operant Conditioning

Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

Behaviorism in the Classroom

Rewards and punishments

Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher

Lecture-based, highly structured

Critiques of Behaviorism

Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Cognitivism

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitivism cont.

Jean Piaget

Genetic Epistemology

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jerome Bruner

Discovery Learning

Learner as independent problem-solver

Cognitivism in the Classroom

Inquiry-oriented projects

Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding

Critiques of Cognitivism

Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Grew out of Cognitivism

A. Bandura (1973)

Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences

Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery

SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games

Bobo Doll Experiment

SLT in the Classroom

Collaborative learning and group work

Modeling responses and expectations

Opportunities to observe experts in action

Critiques of Social Learning Theory

Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors

Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners

Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning

Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is…

A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky

Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the Classroom

Journaling

Experiential activities

Personal focus

Collaborative & cooperative learning

Critiques of Social Constructivism

Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters

Multiple Intelligences (MI)

Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition

H. Gardner (1983 to present)

All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses

8. Intrapersonal

4. Kinesthetic

7. Interpersonal

3. Logical-Mathematical

6. Naturalist

2. Visual-Spatial

5. Musical

1. Verbal-Linguistic

MI in the Classroom

Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums

Student-centered classroom

Authentic Assessment

Self-directed learning

Critiques of MI

Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on learning

Development process is a time-sink

Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards

Brain-Based Learning (BBL)

Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism

D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s to present)
12 governing principles

12. Every brain is unique

6. Processing of parts and wholes

11. Challenge & threat

5. Emotions are critical

10. Embedded learning sticks

4. Patterning

9. Several types of memory

3. A search for meaning

8. Conscious & unconscious processes

2. Whole body learning

7. Focused attention & peripheral perception

1. Brain is a parallel processor

BBL in the Classroom

Opportunities for group learning

Regular environmental changes

A multi-sensory environment

Opportunities for self-expression and making personal connections to content

Community-based learning

Critiques of BBL

Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers

Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes “brain-based” learning questionable

Individual principles have been scientifically questioned

Other Learning Theories of Note

Andragogy (M. Knowles)

Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)

Situated Learning (J. Lave)

Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)

Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

Learning as a Not-So-Black Box

Biological basis for learning – you have it or you don’t…it’s a thing you inherit

Grew in response to Behaviorism in an effort to better understand the mental processes behind learning

Assimilation: The integration of new information into an existing symbol system

Accommodation: The adjustment of internal symbol systems to make space for new information that challenges the structure

Staged scaffolding: not based on ability or experience…based on developmental stage (age most predominantly)

Does not account enough for individuality and differences in staged development

Little emphasis on affective characteristics, especially motivation

Imitation: Individuals adopt the modeled behavior more readily and completely if the person they are observing is admired by the observer

We more readily model behavior if it results in outcomes we value or approve of

Think of a laboratory environment, for instance. What’s more effective in your estimation…watching the faculty member conduct the lab, or you doing it yourself?

Knowledge is actively constructed by individuals in light of and in relation to our past experiences, the context of learning, personal motivation, and our beliefs/attitudes/prior knowledge

Think of the lab…instead of just watching it being done, the student acts as the active agent conducting the lab, with expert support leading them to the edge of their knowledge and beyond.

Dialogic: central focus is on written & spoken dialogue

Recursive: new learning is built upon prior learning…scaffolding

Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute, but is rather an individual construct

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters that do not provide a flexible timeframe for learning

Metacognition – simply put is learning about learning, but more realistically, it’s about kn owing who you are as a learner, and developing the capacity to leverage your strengths to your advantage while purposefully addressing your weaknesses

Individual principles have been scientifically questioned (left/right brain laterality)