Declarative Knowledge

John Anderson, of Carnegie-Mellon University, wrote about the two distinctions between declarative and procedural knowledge in his ACT production theory of the unitary theory of cognition. It borrows ideas from Newell's symbolic framework (1972). The ACT production system proposed a distinction between procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge.

In 1983, Anderson provided a fuller description of the ACT and developed a theory called ACT*. This, in turn, evolved into the ACT-R (Atomic Components of Thought) theory (1993), in which an architecture of cognition is modeled to explain how the process of acquisition can be tuned to the statistical structure of the environment.

Defining

Declarative knowledge is knowing "that" (e.g., that Washington D.C. is the capital of America), as opposed to procedural knowledge is knowing "how" (e.g., how to drive a car).

Declarative knowledge is further divided into:

• Episodic knowledge: memory for "episodes" (eg., the context of where, when, who with etc); usually measured by accuracy measures, has autobiographical reference.
• Semantic knowledge: Memory for knowledge of the world, facts, meaning of words, etc. (eg., knowing that the first month of the year is April (alphabetically) but January (chronologically).

Procedural Overlap

When training complex cognitive skills, what we are normally saying is that there will be "procedural overlap" -- the skills and knowledge that have been compiled while practicing in the learning environment are applicable back on the job. That is, we are assuming that a transfer from the learned task to the new task will be positive in that the underlying set of "productions" overlap. A production is a set of conditions-action pairs (if-then) and are the building blocks of procedural knowledge.

The trouble with this approach is that experts use "declarative knowledge" when problem solving -- proposition models in which highly complex schemata are built from:

• Plans (simple): How goals, which are distinguished by an artifact are related to time and space.
• Concepts (simple): The representation of a class of objects, events, or other entities by their characteristic feature or mental image.
• Principles (simple): How one change is related to another change
• Causal Network (complex): A combination of principles and concepts that are linked to each other with cause and effect and/or natural-process relationships.
• Goal-Plan Hierarchies (complex): Goal and/or plan structures that are linked to each other with non-arbitrary relationships.
• Conceptional model (complex): Concepts that are linked to each other with non-arbitrary relationships, such as a concept map.

So in reality, we expect the learners to transfer a simple production system into a highly complex cognitive schemata system. But they simply have nothing to build upon. We know that learning, innovation, creativity, and all the other things that go into creating complex knowledge are best accomplished by constructing a scaffold that allows one to connect various contexts such as relationships, physical tools, and mental tools. Yet we give them a very short step ladder (the production) that can be used to change a light-bulb, however, what they really need is a scaffold that will allow them to reach several stories (declarative knowledge).

And the main reasons are simply resources and expectations. In college, it is downright difficult, if not impossible, to train complex cognitive skills in a semester; yet look what most problem solving courses in the corporate training world are -- a couple of hours, eight hours top. And then we expect the learners to transfer what they have learned in the classroom to the job. Yet, all they have are a very few simple if/then statements to take back to the job. Such training is totally inadequate.

Part of the problem is that we too often view the training process as "cybernetic" -- a communication theory that treats organisms and organizations as being very much alike in that both display "behavior." And we expect this cybernetic training process to "behave" in such a way that it steers us to a desired destination by treating "ways of behaving." Now this would not be too bad except for one minor point...we look for no feedback. Thus we steer this training ship of ours towards a destination, yet on the way we take no compass or sextant readings. We simple do not where we are at any point during our trip, yet we expect this cybernetic organization of ours to get us to where we are going.

And the reason we blindly steer this ship of ours is that our expectation is not a "result" that will fix or improve a process, but rather a "completion" that tells us we have finished a specific cycle of training. Thus what we should be doing is looking for results and taking measurements along the way to ensure we are indeed getting the result or impact that we desire; rather than simply performing training for the sake of doing it.

Notes

Schemata (Schema): A mental model of a person, object or situation. Schema include cognitive maps (mental representations of familiar parts of one's world), images, concept schema (categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties), event scripts (schema about familiar sequences of events or activities) and mental models (clusters of relationships between objects or processes).

Reference

Anderson , J. R. (1976). Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Merrienboer, Jeroen (1997). Training Complex Cognitive Skills: A Four-Component Instructional Design Model for Technical Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Newell, A. (1972). Human Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy

Add & Edited by:

Arip Nurahman
Indonesia University Of Education

The Three Types of Learning

There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities:

• Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
• Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
• Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the training process." That is, after the training session, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.

The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level (I guess they never thought to check with their sports or drama department).

This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.

Cognitive ⁽¹⁾

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place.

Category	Example and Key Words
Knowledge: Recall data or information.	Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.	Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in oneís own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.	Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employeeís vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.	Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.	Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.	Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Affective ⁽²⁾

This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category	Example and Key Words
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.	Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.
Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation).	Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learnerís overt behavior and are often identifiable.	Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values.	Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for oneís behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes.
Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).	Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotor ⁽³⁾

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Category	Example and Key Words
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.	Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a personís response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).	Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize oneís abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.	Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.	Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.	Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.	Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.	Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Other Psychomotor Domains

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two other popular versions:

Dave's:⁽⁴⁾
• Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art.
• Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.
• Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right."
• Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.
• Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's:⁽⁵⁾
• Reflex movements - Reactions that are not learned.
• Fundamental movements - Basic movements such as walking, or grasping.
• Perception - Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
• Physical abilities - Stamina that must be developed for further development such as strength and agility.
• Skilled movements - Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting.
• No discursive communication - Effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.

Reference

1. Bloom B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.

2.Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

3. Simpson E. J. (1972). The Classification of Educational Objectives in the Psychomotor Domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

4. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational Innovators Press.

5. Harrow, Anita (1972) A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: a guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay.

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom's Taxonomy, is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three "domains:" Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive. Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels (Orlich, et al. 2004). A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.

Most references to the Bloom's Taxonomy only notice the Cognitive domain. There is also a so far less referred, revised version of the Taxonomy, published in 2001 under the name of "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and assessing", eds. Anderson, Lorin W., Krathwohl, David R., Airasian, Peter W., Cruikshank, Kathleen A., Mayer, Richard E., Pintrich, Paul R., Raths, James and Wittrock, Merlin C

Contents

• 1 Affective
• 2 Psychomotor
• 3 Cognitive
• 4 See also
• 5 References

Affective

Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:

Receiving

The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur.

Responding

The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus, the student also reacts in some way.

Valuing

The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information.

Organizing

The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and accommodate them within his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned.

Characterizing

The student has held a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic.

Psychomotor

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and/or development in behavior and/or skills.

Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies^[1].

Cognitive

Skills in the cognitive domain revolve around knowledge, comprehension, and "thinking through" a particular topic. Traditional education tends to emphasize the skills in this domain, particularly the lower-order objectives.

There are six levels in the taxonomy, moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:

Knowledge

Exhibit memory of previously-learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers

• Knowledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts
• Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology
• Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field - principles and generalizations, theories and structures

Questions like: What is...?

Comprehension

Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas

• Translation
• Interpretation
• Extrapolation

Questions like: How would you compare and contrast...?

Application

Using new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way

Questions like: Can you organize _______ to show...?

Analysis

Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find evidence to support generalizations

• Analysis of elements
• Analysis of relationships
• Analysis of organizational principles

Questions like: How would you classify...?

Synthesis

Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions

• Production of a unique communication
• Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
• Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Questions like: Can you predict an outcome?

Evaluation

Present and defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria

• Judgments in terms of internal evidence
• Judgments in terms of external criteria

Questions like: Do you agree with.....?

Some critiques of Bloom's Taxonomy('s cognitive domain) admit the existence of these six categories, but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link (Paul, R. (1993). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (3rd ed.). Rohnert Park, California: Sonoma State University Press.). Also the revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy has moved Synthesis in higher order than Evaluation. Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to Application before introducing Concepts. This thinking would seem to relate to the method of Problem Based Learning.

See also

• Educational psychology
• Educational technology
• Higher order thinking skills
• Mastery learning
• Physical education
• David Krathwohl
• Fluid and crystallized intelligence

References

• Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals; pp. 201-207; B. S. Bloom (Ed.) Susan Fauer Company, Inc. 1956.
• A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing — A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Peter W. Airasian, Kathleen A. Cruikshank, Richard E. Mayer, Paul R. Pintrich, James Raths and Merlin C. Wittrock (Eds.) Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. 2001

1. ^ Bloom's Taxonomy

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives"

Categories: Educational technology | Educational psychology | Classification systems

Affective

What Can I Do To Increase the Effectiveness of the Learning Experience?

Outline

Page 1 Affective Behaviors

Why Is Safety so Hard to Train?

One Solution

Changing Affective Behaviors is Not Easy

Page 2 Knowledge Sharing by
Claire Belilos

Page 3 The Mayor of Bogota

Page 4 Self Confidence

Page 5 Self

Page 6 Changing Behaviors

Affective Behaviors

Getting someone to change their affective behavior is one of the hardest tasks to accomplish. That is because the training often threatens the learners' self-image. So, it becomes important to affirm the learner's core values, such as moral, social, religious, family, political, etc. Learners who attend training in which their beliefs or values are supported are much more likely to "let down their guard" and accept the learning points.

If you confront the learners with learning points that suggests they may have acted in a foolish or in a dangerous manner, they become resistant to change. No one wants to be told that they did something stupid. Thus, it is important to remind them of their "goodness" in order to make the various learning points easier to digest. The learning will not be so threatening because thinking about an important value will have affirmed each learner’s image of himself or herself as a smart and capable person. This also points out the invalid concept of a learner as an empty vessel. You have to "draw" them into the learning, not simply "pour" the learning into them.

Why is safety so hard to train?

(NOTE: The following example uses safety, but this method works with a wide variety of affective behaviors.

Unlike a lot of other tasks, it is often easier to do something the unsafe way, rather than the safe way. For example, if I run out of charcoal lighter, it is much easier and quicker to use the can of gasoline in the garage than drive two miles to the nearest store; it is much quicker to cross in the middle of the street than walk to the corner-crosswalk; it is faster and easier to jump on a piece of equipment and start operating than to perform some checks beforehand.

Getting someone to act safely requires that they not only gain the required knowledge and skills, but that they also change their attitude (affective domain). Otherwise, they will know how to act, but will not do so as their self-systems kick in and convince them to do it the fast and easy way.

We all perform calculated risks (which in reality are unsafe acts to various degrees), e.g., I might never use gasoline to start a barbecue (unless I was starving and had no means to get fluid), but I might cross the street outside of the crosswalk if it was not busy.

This is why organizations have safety class after safety class - they never getting around to changing the attitudes of the learners. They hope that drilling the same old knowledge and skills into the learners with various methods will eventually pay off and produce safe learners. However safety requires that we know the rules (knowledge), know how to act (skills), and have a proper attitude for it (affective).

One Solution

A learning program might go something like this (I am keeping this simple so that you can add, remove, or adjust the steps for other behaviors):

	Have each learner explain three or four safety rules or principles that they value dearly and why. Also, have them record their selections on a flip chart.
	This helps to internalize the belief that they are "good" persons, which makes them more receptive to change. This is best done in small groups (mix the groups up throughout the various activities).

Sort of like "cheerleading."

	Gather the groups back together and have them discuss their values or principles. Tape these values to the walls so that they may be used for further reminders.
	Discuss the concept of the difficulty of getting people to act safely (e.g. it is often quicker and easier not to act in a safe manner).
	Again, using small groups, have them discuss calculated risks (unsafe acts) that they have performed, e.g., not coming to a complete stop at a stop sign. Have them record the reasons on a flipchart.
	Next, have them confront the inappropriate behaviors by asking why we take these risks when they might clash with our core values and principles. (Note: You can have them discuss a number of other things depending on your desired outcome - e.g. discuss if the reasons they listed for taking the "risks" are the same reasons other employees might use. If not, what might some of their reasons be?)
	Gather them back together and using their input, extract the central themes of their discussions.
	Have them brainstorm some activities or solutions that they can use in their workplace to make it a safer place (this allows them to become part of the solution). For ideals on brainstorming activities, see Brainstorming

Changing Affective Behaviors Is Not Easy

Note that changing affective behaviors is generally not a one shot activity. But, going to the core of the matter is better than repeating the same old skills and knowledge that they already understand. Building a wide variety of these "cheerleading" activities will give you the three required building blocks of learning difficult behaviors:

	Gaining new skills,
	learning new knowledge,
	and changing Affective behaviors.

Page 2 - Knowledge Sharing
Page 3 - The Mayor of Bogota
Page 4 - Self Confidence
Page 5 - Self
Page 6 - Changing Behaviors

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Arousal and Learning

Introduction

Arousal is a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other concepts such as anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation. The arousal level can be thought of as how much capacity you have available to work with. One finding with respect to arousal is the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) which predicts an inverted U-shaped function between arousal and performance:

There has been quite a bit of research indicating the correlation suggested by Yerkes and Dodson exists (Broadhurst, 1957; Duffy, 1957; Anderson, 2000), but a cause of the correlation has not yet been fully established (Anderson, Revelle, & Lynch, 1989). Although the Yerkes-Dodson law is quite old, it has held up in time through numerous studies. Just because something is old, does not make it invalid. In fact, since it has held up for so long, is the reason it has gone from theory to law.

A certain amount of arousal can be a motivator toward change (with change in this discussion being learning). But too much or too little will certainly work against the learner. You want some mid-level of arousal to provide the motivation to change (learn). Too little arousal has an inert affect on the learner, while too much has a hyper affect. Also, there are optimal levels of arousal for each task to be learned. The optimal level of arousal is:

• lower for more difficult or intellectually (cognitive) tasks
• higher for tasks requiring endurance and persistence

For example, the arousal level in a quality team training session must be quite high as it requires persistence and it is basically a low cognitive task. On the other side of the coin is an advanced algebra class. It is a extremely high on the cognitive level, so arousal must be kept low as you need the learners' full attention on the subject matter -- too much arousal and you overload them.

You might think of arousal and cognitive levels as fluid in a glass. If you put too much of any ingredient in the glass, it overflows. On the other hand, if you put too little in, you are not using the glass to its fullest capabilities. And if you put the wrong ingredients in, but the glass is full, then it does not taste good.

Recent Research and Findings

A University of Chicago researcher reported performing tests on the influence that a stress-related hormone has on learning in ground squirrels and that it could have an impact on understanding how it influences human learning. Jill Mateo (2007), Assistant Professor in Comparative Human Development, said that modest levels of cortisol are apparently linked to their survival. The inverted U, similar to Yerkes-Dodson's law, is the shape data forms on a chart. Animals with low levels of cortisol are at the left of the inverted U, and those with high levels are at the right, while those with modest levels and higher learning are in the middle. You can find more information on this story at Science Daily.

What does this mean for the Learning Environment?

Environmental arousal factors such as the noise level, temperature, comfort, must be controlled. This allows you to put more arousal factors that are beneficial to learning without going into arousal overload. A colleague of mine once had to give some training at a meat packing company. The only place they had for him to train was in a cold storage room. He managed to get through the training by leaving out most of the arousal factors that he normally uses. The cold room had already overloaded the learners' peak arousal level (stress) and he did not want to arouse them anymore.

When training tasks that are high on the cognitive scale or are highly complex, use less motivators and keep the stress level low. The brain tends to shut certain aspects out when it has too many inputs coming in at once, and the one input that you do not want it to shut out is what your learners need to learn. Some trainers call this brain-overload, tunnel vision, or brain-cramps. This does not mean you cannot make the material interesting, just keep their arousal on an even keel. You want them to focus on the learning activities, not inputting more information into their brains with motivational speeches and stressors.

Outdoor or physical team training activities require more arousal techniques. This is where the trainer has to become more of a college football type coach and less of a trainer. The effort to reach the peak arousal point where the most change (learning) takes place is higher on this scale than cognitive learning. To reach that peak arousal point you need to provide more stress and motivation. This is why such team training programs as the U. S. Armed Forces Basic Training creates great teams -- they reach the arousal point that is on the high-end for this type of learning.

Tests can be great motivators for getting students to learn. . . it shows they mastered the task, they do not like to fail, they want that certificate, its a challenge, etc. But test taking anxiety can push some learners' arousal level over the peak arousal point. You can reduce stress levels by supplying non-graded quizzes and performance activities that provide reassurance and feedback to the learners.

When the optimum arousal point goes too low then use activities that get the learners interacting with each other or moving. Provide inspirational speeches, challenging games, and puzzles. Give a pop quiz.

When the optimum arousal point goes too high then take the cognitive focus off the goal (eliminate "what if" statements) and place it on the process. Take a break, watch a video, stretch. Play a fun, but interesting game.

Provide the who, what, when, where, why, and how questions about the learning to take place as it helps to eliminate fears. . . you and the learning environment need to control the stress factors, not the unknowns.

Anxiety and Arousal

Many trainers believe that all anxiety must be removed from the training environment. But, again, there is an optimal level. The Optimal Arousal Level can be thought of as the Optimal Motivational Level. And one of the things that motivate people is anxiety. But, many people seem to have a negative connotation to the word "anxiety" as they associate it with neurotic inferences. It might help to picture anxiety in three terms as Freud did:

• Reality anxiety: the fear of a real danger in the external world that alerts the ego to danger. NOTE: This is the type of anxiety needed in some types of training, while the next two need to be eliminated.
• Neurotic anxiety: the fear that one's inner impulses cannot be controlled (id).
• Moral anxiety: the fear of the retributions of one's own conscience (superego).

Mild anxiety motivates us in the real world. Without it, bills would not get paid on time, term papers would not get written, people would not get medical check-ups, drivers would race, people would steal, etc. In the real world, anxiety is a major motivational force that drives and changes our behavior.

Of course, too much anxiety impedes the learning process

When you take anxiety out of the training environment, you leave the learner without a major motivator. There is an old learning theory (now discredited) that states "the learner is an empty vessel in which the instructor pours knowledge." And unintentionally, this is how many training environments now operate. All the learners have to do is show up for the training session and they pass as the training environment has been completely sanitized of all emotions. The trainers believe that their entertaining and interesting instruction is going to be "poured" into the learners.

Excellent training places the responsibility of learning on both the trainer and the learner -- the trainer provides the learning tools, while the learners' responsibility is to use these tools. And by creating an anxious-free environment, you take away one of the major motivational tools of the learner.

Perhaps anxiety's most effective use in training would be in a safety class. Pilots go through simulators not only for the psychomotor practice and to increase their knowledge, but also because some of the simulations are so realistic that they get anxiety attacks that tell them "danger, do something now!" not "something is going wrong, lets wait and see what happens." These types of anxiety attacks are our friend, they tell us to take immediate action by releasing adrenaline into the bloodstream, stimulating the heart, raising the metabolic rate, and increasing the blood glucose concentration.

Safety is not only having the knowledge to do things the correct way, the skills to perform correctly, but also the ATTITUDE to REACT to unsafe conditions. I'm sure some are going to jump on the band-wagon and say its unethical for trainers to change attitudes, or you change behaviors not attitudes, but that is a training cop-out. I work in a plant with forklifts, conveyors, machinery, and many other potential hazards. When I leave work I want to do so via my car, not in a hearse on the way to the county morgue or in an ambulance with an amputated leg because the people who work with me "displayed safe behaviors" but did not have the attitude to react to something going wrong or sense (become anxious) when they were about to do something dangerous. Failing to incorporate affective (attitude) domain training into a safety classes means that you, the trainer, failed at your task.

The Learning Zone

How do you know when you have reached the optimum arousal point for your learners? In sports, a player who is playing great is at the optimum arousal point and is said to be "in the zone." Achieving the optimum arousal level in a training environment puts students in the Learning Zone:

• They become totally involved in the learning process by centering in on the task to be learned as non-learning stressors have been eliminated.
• They loose self-consciousness of the fear they might fail and gain a desire to succeed as their emotions are now tied to the learning environment. Failing becomes challenges because they become more adaptive to the learning environment and they believe the learning environment will "fine tune" itself to meet their needs.
• They have clear visions of what the task to be learned can provide as they know how it will help them in their future endeavors.
• They have a sense of being in control of their learning environment as they are ripe for learning (they are NOT just going through the motions).
• They become more intrinsically motivated (self-directed) because they want to learn the task (their focus is on the task rather than reward and punishment).

In closing, each task has an optimal level of arousal and the level of arousal includes anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation. The trainer's job is to help each learner reach their optimal level of arousal so that their focus is totally on the task to be learned.

References

Anderson, J.R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implications. 5th Ed. New York: Worth.

Anderson, K. J., Revelle, W., & Lynch, M. J. (1989). Caffeine, impulsivity, and memory scanning: A comparison of two explanations for the Yerkes-Dodson Effect. Motivation and Emotion, 13, 1-20.

Broadhurst, P. L. (1957). Emotional Psychology, 54, 345­352.

Duffy, E. (1957). The psychological significance of the concept of "arousal" or "activation." Psychological Review, 64, 265­275.

Mateo, J. M. (2007). Inverted-U shape relationship between cortisol and learning in ground squirrels. Journal Neurobiology of Learning and Memory (online). Neurobiol Learn Mem. Dec 27.

Yerkes, R.M. & Dodson, J.D. (1908). The Relationship of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit Formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology., 18, 459-482.

Learning

In the fields of neuropsychology, personal development and education, Learning is one of the most important mental function of humans, animals and artificial cognitive systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals^[1][2] and humans. Therefore, in general, a learning can be conscious and not conscious.

For example, for small children, non-conscious learning processes are as natural as breathing. In fact, there is evidence for behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in Developmental Psychologydevelopment.^[3]

From the social perspective, learning is the goal of teaching and education.

Conscious learning is a capacity requested by students, therefore is usually goal-oriented and requires a motivation.

Learning has also been mathematically modeled using a differential equation related to an arbitrarily defined knowledge indicator with respect to time, and dependent on a number of interacting factors (constants and variables) such as initial knowledge, motivation, intelligence, knowledge anchorage or resistance, etc.^[4][5]

Machine learning

Main article: Machine learning

Although learning is often thought of as a property associated with living things, computers are also able to modify their own behaviors as a result of experiences. Known as machine learning, this is a broad subfield of artificial intelligence concerned with the design and development of algorithms and techniques that allow computers to "learn". At a general level, there are two types of learning: inductive, and deductive. Inductive machine learning methods extract rules and patterns out of massive data sets.

The major focus of machine learning research is to extract information from data automatically, by computational and statistical methods. Hence, machine learning is closely related to data mining and statistics but also theoretical computer science.

Machine learning has a wide spectrum of applications including natural language processing, syntactic pattern recognition, search engines, medical diagnosis, bioinformatics and cheminformatics, detecting credit card fraud, stock market analysis, classifying DNA sequences, speech and handwriting recognition, object recognition in computer vision, game playing and robot locomotion.

See also

• Animal cognition
• Developmental Psychology
• History of education
• Intelligence
• Machine learning
• Pedagogy
• Reasoning
• Sequence learning
• Sleep and learning
• Study skills

References

1. ^ Jungle Gyms: The Evolution of Animal Play
2. ^ What behavior can we expect of octopuses?
3. ^ Sandman, Wadhwa, Hetrick, Porto & Peeke. (1997). Human fetal heart rate dishabituation between thirty and thirty-two weeks gestation. Child Development, 68, 1031-1040.
4. ^ Fadul, J. "Mathematical Formulations of Learning: Based on Ten Learning Principles" International Journal of Learning. Volume 13 (2006) Issue 6. pp. 139-152.
5. ^ deFigueiredo, R.J.P. Mathematical formulation of cognitive and learning processes in neural networks, 1990

• Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52178-749-1.
• Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
• Holt, John (1983). How Children Learn. UK: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140225706

External links

• Education & Learning List of selected links
• How to be a Better Learner
• Pedagogy Iran

Absorbing

Reading, seeing, listening are good methods for absorbing information. However, this information does not instantly become knowledge once we have absorbed it for we have simply copied the information from one source, such as a book, to another source, our brain. To help make it part of one's knowledge base, one needs to take it through a "learning cycle" (not necessarily in order):

• observing and reflecting
• forming concepts (models, frameworks, generalizations)
• testing in new situations
• gaining experience

For example, I once watched a program on the human face. So while "absorbing" was the main learning vehicle, there was still a cycle to it: -

• Watching the program and thinking about it (observing and reflecting).
• Fitting it in with previous experience and knowledge - (forming concepts).
• Writing about it (testing in new situations): http://groups.yahoo.com/group/trdev/message/5058
• Besides the posting, I have not really used the new information, so my knowledge base lacks real depth (gaining experience).

References

Wertenbroch, A.; Nabeth, T. (2000). Advanced Learning Approaches & Technologies: The CALT Perspective. http://www.insead.fr/CALT/Publication/CALTReport/calt-perspective.pdf

Training and Active Learning

People by nature desire to know - Aristotle

Learning Outline

Involving Learners with the Training Process

	The Seven Principles for Good Practice
	Learner-Centered Principles for Training
	Andragogy
	Process of Learning

Putting the Learning Process Into Use

	A Climate for Learning
	Mutual Planning
	Learners' Needs
	Formulation of Objectives
	Designs for Learning
	Carrying out the Design
	Mutual Evaluation

References

Involving Learners with the Training Process

Effective teachers demonstrate more implementation of learner-centered domains of practice than less effective teachers (Fasko D. & Grubb D. J. & McCombs J. & McCombs B. L.)

The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education

A group of scholars of higher education were asked to derive from their knowledge of the past 50 years of research a set of principles that could be applied to improve learning. The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education was then formulated from their conclusions (Chickering & Gamson 1997):

1. Encourage contacts between students and faculty.
2. Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.
3. Use active learning techniques.
4. Give prompt feedback.
5. Emphasize time on task.
6. Communicate high expectations.
7. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.

Learner-Centered Principles for Training

A set of Learner-Centered Principles for Training (Ellis, Wagner, & Longmire, 1999) were created to help with the learning process. They are based on the work of Barbara McCombs (McCombs, 1992):

	Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Learners discover and construct meaning from information and experience based on their unique perceptions, thoughts and feelings.
	More information doesn't necessarily mean more learning. Learners seek to create meaningful uses of knowledge regardless of the quantity and quality information presented.
	Learners link new knowledge to existing information in ways that make sense to the learner. The remembering of new knowledge is facilitated when it can be tied to a learner's current knowledge.
	Personality influences learning. Learners have varying degrees of self-confidence and differ in the clarity of their personal goals and expectations for success and failure.
	Learners want to learn. Individuals are naturally curious and enjoy learning, but personal insecurity and fear of failure often get in the way.
	Learners like challenges. Learners are most creative when learning is challenging and meets their individual needs.
	Learners are individuals. Not all learners are at the same stage of physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development. Learners also differ in their cultural backgrounds. Although the basic principles of learning apply to all learners regardless of these differences, trainers must take into account such differences between learners.
	The learning environment is important. Learners learn best in a friendly, socially interactive and diverse environment.
	Learners like positive reinforcement. Learning environments that support the self-esteem and respect of the individual learner tend to be more successful.
	Past Experience Matters. Personal beliefs and impressions from prior learning color learners' world views and their approach to learning.

Andragogy

The Andragogic Learning Model recognizes several facets to learning (Knowles, M.S.):

	They are problem centered rather than content centered.
	The permit and encourage the active participation of the learner.
	They encourage the learner to introduce past experiences into the process in order to reexamine that experience in the light of new data.
	The climate of learning must be collaborative (instructor-to-learner and learner-to-learner) as opposed to authority-oriented.
	The learning environment (planning, conducting, evaluating) is a mutual activity between learner and instructor.
	Evaluation leads to appraisal of needs and interests and therefore to to redesign and new learning activities.
	Activities are experimental, not "transmittal and absorption."

Thus, the primary function of the trainer is to become a guide to the process of learning, not a manager of content. The "learning guide" uses two-way communication to establish the objectives and methods of the learning process.

Process of Learning

The three models discussed above emphasize the importance involving the learners in the training and learning process. Such a model would look similar to this:

The Process of Learning Model (Laird D. 1985)

A learning organization is a place where people are continually discovering how they create their reality. And how they can change it. - Peter Senge

Notice how The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, the set of Learner-Centered Principles for Training, and the Andragogic Learning Model all tie into The Process of Learning Model:

A climate for learning

	Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students (Seven Principles)
	Learning does not occur in a vacuum (Learner-Centered Principles)
	Learners want to learn (Learner-Centered Principles)
	The learning environment is important (Learner-Centered Principles)
	They encourage the learner to introduce past experiences into the process in order to reexamine that experience in the light of new data (Andragogic Learning Model)

A structure for mutual planning

	Encourages contacts between students and Faculty (Seven Principles)
	Personality influences learning (Learner-Centered Principles)
	Learners like challenges (Learner-Centered Principles)
	The learning environment (planning, conducting, evaluating) is a mutual activity between learner and instructor (Andragogic Learning Model)

Learners' needs, interests, and values

	Respects diverse talents and ways of learning (Seven Principles)
	Learners link new knowledge to existing information in ways that make sense to the learner (Learner-Centered Principles)
	Learners are individuals (Learner-Centered Principles)
	They are problem centered rather than content centered (Andragogic Learning Model)

Formulation of objectives

	Communicates high expectations (Seven Principles)
	The climate of learning must be collaborative (instructor-to-learner and learner-to-learner) as opposed to authority-oriented (Andragogic Learning Model)

Designs for learning

	Uses active learning techniques (Seven Principles)
	Past Experience Matters (Learner-Centered Principles)
	Activities are experimental, not "transmittal and absorption" (Andragogic Learning Model)

Carrying out the design

	Emphasizes time on task (Seven Principles)
	More information doesn't necessarily mean more learning (Learner-Centered Principles)
	The permit and encourage the active participation of the learner (Andragogic Learning Model)

Mutual evaluation, leading to reappraisal and revision of the learning objectives

	Gives prompt feedback (Seven Principles)
	Learners like positive reinforcement (Learner-Centered Principles)
	Evaluation leads to appraisal of needs and interests and therefore to to redesign and new learning activities (Andragogic Learning Model)

This process of learner involvement differs quite differently from conventional instruction that is based on a hierarchical model in which those who know teach those who do not know.

Most of us only know how to be taught, we haven't learned how to learn. - Malcom Knowles

This learning involvement is not only a new experience for many trainers, it is also a new experience for most learners. Since most learners will never have encountered this type of learning or might have had a prior negative experiences, special attention needs to be paid. For example, one study found that learners respond differently to a visiting instructor simply based on receiving information prior to the lecture that indicated if the instructor was a "cold" or a "warm" person (Kelley, 1952). While everyone experienced the same event in the same room at the same time (the lecture by the instructor), those who had been primed to expect a warm instructor participated more in the discussion and subsequently rated the instructor more positively than those who had expected a cold person. This finding suggests that individuals look for evidence to confirm their prior expectations.

This is known as preframing, which is the attitudes and beliefs that learners bring into a learning environment. Preframes come from other learners, supervisors, past experience, culture, etc. With regard to learner involvement, it is important to note that the learner's expectations and past history are likely to influence their reaction to the type of training being presented. Those that have had good experiences with training that allows them to become involved will have a more positive attitude than others with negative experiences.

Putting the Learning Process Into Use

A Climate for Learning

Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing one’s ideas and responding to others’ improves thinking and deepens understanding. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

There are three general types of learning group: informal learning groups, formal learning groups, and study teams (Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991).

	Informal learning groups are "off the cuff" clustering of learners within a single class session, e.g. asking the learners to turn to a neighbor and spend two minutes discussing a question you have posed. These informal groups are formed to check on the learners' understanding of the material, to give them an opportunity to apply what they are learning, or to provide a change of pace.
	Formal learning groups are established to complete a specific task, such as perform a lab experiment, write a report, carry out a project, or prepare a position paper. These groups may complete their work in a single class session or over several weeks. The learners work together until the task is finished.
	Study teams are long-term groups with stable membership whose primary responsibility is to provide members with support, encouragement, and assistance in completing course requirements and assignments. Study teams also inform their members about lectures and assignments when someone has missed a session. The larger the class and the more complex the subject matter, the more valuable study teams can be.

Also, the process that these learning group uses falls into two different camps:

	Cooperative learning involves the more conventional notion of cooperation, in that learners work in small groups on an assigned project or problem under the guidance of the trainer who monitors the groups, making sure the learners are staying on task and are coming up with the correct answers (if there is a right or a best answer).
	Collaborative learning is a more radical departure. It involves learners working together in small groups to develop their own answer through interaction and reaching consensus, not necessarily a known answer. Monitoring the groups or correcting "wrong" impressions is not the role of the trainer since there is no authority on what the answer should be.

Achieving a climate for learning can be accomplished by:

	Breaking the class into small groups.
	Keep people moving around from group to group/person to person.
	Have activities and projects outside the classroom for group participation
	Developing teams.
	Peer tutoring.
	Encouraging the learners to study together.
	Encouraging the learners to answer each other's questions instead of answering them yourself.
	Have learners teach all or part of a lesson.
	Be a model by asking questions and displaying good listening behaviors.

A Structure for Mutual Planning

Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is a most important factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students’ intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and plans. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

How do we know that? Mostly through large-scale corelational studies that conclude that students who have frequent contact with faculty members in and out of class are better satisfied with their educational experience, less likely to drop out, and perceive themselves to have learned more than students with less faculty contact (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).

Some methods of mutual planning are:

	Using a one-on-one approach to assessing the learner's requirements.
	Personalize feedback on learner assignment - ask questions.
	Open door policy.
	E-mail.
	Stick around for after class conversations.
	Mentoring.
	Learn student's names.
	Telephone access.
	Frequent question & answer periods.

Learners' Needs, Interests, and Values

Many roads lead to learning. Different students bring different talents and styles to college. Brilliant students in a seminar might be all thumbs in a lab or studio; students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need opportunities to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

The learner's needs can be met by:

	Utilizing multimedia presentations that engage the learners (see, hear, and do or visual, auditory, kinesthetic/tactile).
	Provide outside of the classroom activities (fieldtrips).
	Give the learners a problem to solve that has multiple solutions.
	Change the media or delivery method frequently.
	Identify a variety of learning opportunities for each module.
	Explain theory from "practical approach" first, then add the structural approach.

Formulation of Objectives

Expect more and you will get it. High expectations are important for everyone — for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

Due to some training requirements, certain learning objectives are often required. However, by focusing in on the learner's needs, instead of the training program's needs, you can get the learners involved with the achievement of the objectives:

	Although a lot of learning is developmental and cannot be easily defined, work with each learner to set as complete a learning goal or objective as possible - what is the task to be learned, how will it be learned, how will you know it has been learned.
	Assign realistic time values for each objective or learning point. If the total time is greater than the time you have, adjust accordingly (suggest self-study for the less critical learning points).

Designs for Learning

Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write reflectively about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

The U.S. Department of Education and the National Institute of Education highlighted student involvement as one of three critical conditions for excellence in education, noting that: "It is only the amount of time one can allocate for learning but the quality of effort within that time makes the difference...quality of effort refers to the extent to which learning is active rather than passive and colleges clearly can control the conditions of active learning by expecting students to be participants in, rather than spectators of, the learning process." (U.S. Department of Education 1984:18-19)

"Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process. Researchers report that, regardless of the subject matter, students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional formats. Students who work in collaborative groups also appear more satisfied with their classes." (Cross, K.P cited these sources: Beckman, 1990; Chickering and Gamson, 1991; Collier, 1980; Cooper and Associates, 1990; Goodsell, Maher, Tinto, and Associates, 1992; Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991; Kohn, 1986; McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, and Smith, 1986; Slavin, 1980, 1983; Whitman, 1988)

To help achieve the design:

	Set up problem solving activities in small groups and have each group discuss with class.
	Get feedback on what activities help the students to learn.
	Encourage reflection (e.g. learning journals).
	Encourage learners to challenge (challenging is not flaming each other) ideas, the ideas of other students, or those presented in readings or other course materials.
	Give learners concrete, real-life situations to analyze.
	Encourage students to suggest new readings, projects, or course activities. The learning environment needs to be dynamic, not passive.

Carrying out the Design

Time plus energy equals learning. Learning to use one’s time well is critical for students and professionals alike. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

Carrying out a plan or design, if often the hardest part, but the most enjoyable:

	Ensure that time spent on a task is real learning, not busy work.
	Understand that there will be problems and changes along the way - plan for them.
	Identify key concepts and how those will be taught.
	Active learning, not passive, should always be stressed.
	Expect learners to participate (preframing).
	Try to make the assignments interesting. The more interesting, the more involved the learners become.
	Blend two types of knowledge: theoretical and everyday-lived.
	Ask learners to comment on what they are doing. This helps to reinforce the learning experience.

Mutual Evaluation, Leading to Reappraisal and Revision of the Learning Objectives

Knowing what you know and don’t know focuses your learning. In getting started, students need help in assessing their existing knowledge and competence. Then, in classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive feedback on their performance. At various points during college, and at its end, students need chances to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to know, and how they might assess themselves. (Chickering & Gamson 1997)

Each learner differs in his or her need for achievement and how success and failure is perceived. These differences tend to affect individual motivation and persistence at a task. Individual motivation and persistence is affected by how one makes attributions for success and failure (Weiner, 1986). For example, one can attribute success to something about oneself or something about the environment. Learners who credit themselves for success, tend to have higher motivation and persist longer at tasks as they believe they have control over success or failure and thus greater persistence should lead to success.

The goal of any training intervention should be to facilitate these types of attributions as they increase the desire to learn and make use of the training:

	Grade on a criteria based system by using a range of test questions (using a curve is ok).
	Provide constructive criticism when necessary, but provide praise/input as often as possible.
	Provide plenty of question and answer sessions.
	Use exams that give fast feedback.
	Relate lessons to real life experiences.
	Videos can be used to help the learner critique his or her own performance.
	The trainer or other students can react to a writer’s draft using the “hidden text” option available in word processors: Turned on, the “hidden” comments spring up; turned off, the comments recede and the writer’s prized work is again free of “red ink.”
	Celebrate in-class success!

If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic. - Lewis Carroll